Delhi Technological University

• Subject: Applied Physics (AP102)

• Topic: Quantum Mechanics

By: Dr. Brajesh Nandan

 Failure of Classical Physics

• At the End of 19th century,

Physics

Newtonian Mechanics Maxwell’s Theory of Electromagnetism

Dynamics of Material Bodies Provide the proper framework to study the radiation

Matter and radiation were described in terms of particles and waves, respectively.
 Failure of Classical Physics
• The overwhelming success of classical physics (Classical mechanics, classical
theory of electromagnetism and thermodynamics) made people believe that
the ultimate description of nature had been achieved.
• All the known physical phenomena could be explained within the framework of
general theories of matter and radiation.
• But at the turn of 20th century,
• Classical physics was challenged on two major fronts:
• 1. Relativistic Domain: (Newtonian mechanics ceases at very high speed i.e. ‘c’).
• 2. Microscopic domain: New experimental techniques were developed to the
point of probing atomic and subatomic structures.
• Classical physics fails to provide the proper explanation of newly discovered
phenomena
 Failure of Classical Physics
• Hence, Classical Physics ceases at microscopic level.
• New concepts had to be invoked to describe the structure of atoms or
molecules when light interact with them?
• Black body radiation
• Photoelectric Effect
• Compton Effect
• Atomic spectra
• Moving of e- around the nucleus, etc.
• All these problems could be overcome with the development of Q. M.
or W. M.
 Failure of Classical Physics
Ex: Stability of atoms

• At present we know that in an atom, e- revolves round the nucleus in

circular orbit.
• Acc. to classical physics, e- should experience attractive electrostatic
force due to positively charges nucleus.
• If we consider that the e- always moves round the nucleus then
• It must experience a centripetal acceleration.
• Then, e- must radiates energy in the form of EM waves.
and fall into the nucleus.
• Indicates the instability of atom.
 Failure of Classical Physics
• Failed to explain spectrum of H-atom.
• Experimentally it is observed that the spectrum of H-atom consists of a discrete set of lines:

1 1
• ѵ =𝑅 − n1 > n2
𝑛2 2 𝑛1 2
• Where R is Rydberg constant, n1 and n2 are integers.
1 1
• ѵ =𝑅 − , n1 =2, 3, 4, ….. Lyman series UV region wavelength
12 𝑛1 2
1 1
• ѵ =𝑅 − 2 , n1 =3, 4, 5….. Balmer series Visible and near UV region wavelength
22 𝑛1
• Please see the expressions for other series of lines as discussed in class.
• All these discrete set of lines indicate the excited atoms of hydrogen emit EM radiation of
certain definite wavelengths continuously.
• Thus Classical physics unable to explain the spectrum of H-atom.
• And finally CP fails at atomic level.
 Failure of Classical Physics

• Not only physics but entire physical sciences (Chemistry, Materials

sciences, etc.) are interpreted using Q. M. or W. M.
• Planck played an important role in establishing the quantum nature of
radiation.
• Later Schrodinger, Heisenberg also contributed.
• All these theories are combined in one branch of physics i.e.
Quantum Mechanics.
 Failure of Classical Physics
• To explain Black Body Radiation curves (shape). Max Planck proposed quantum theory.
• Matter is composed of large number of oscillating particles which vibrate with
different frequencies.
• Energy of these oscillating particle is quantized. E = nhѵ,
• Where n is integers, h is Planck constant 6.6 10-34 J/s, ѵ is oscillating freq.
• In this theory, the vibrating particle does not radiate energy continuously but
discontinuously in discrete quanta or photon.
• If the oscillator remain in one of the quantized states, it neither emits not absorbs any
energy.
• Max Planck concluded that the emission or absorption of energy is discrete process.
• Hence, Exchange of energy b/w radiation and matter can not takes place
continuously but only in discrete values and integral multiple of hѵ.
 Blackbody radiation Curve
• Why does the blackbody spectrum have same shape?
• Rayleigh-Jean assumptions:
• 1. Cavity walls are perfect reflectors.
• 2. Radiation is consisting standing EM waves.
• No. of standing waves:
8𝜋𝐿3 2
g(ѵ)dѵ = ѵ dѵ (1)
𝑐3
Density of standing waves in a cavity
1 8𝜋ѵ2
G(ѵ)dѵ =𝐿3 g(ѵ)dѵ = dѵ (2)
𝑐3
• Rayleigh –Jeans Formula
8𝜋ѵ2
• Energy per unit volume u(ѵ)dѵ = 𝐤T dѵ (3)
𝑐3
• Here energy density of Blackbody radiation is increasing as ѵ2 without limit. Here theoretically
predicted spectrum was different from the observed one (black line in curve)
• But integrating Eq. (3) from 0 to infinity gives the total energy density as infinite at all temperatures.
• The discrepancy between theory and observation was at once recognized as fundamental.
• This is the failure of classical physics.
 Planck’s Radiation Law
• 1. Energy is not uniformly distributed in radiation spectrum.
• 2 At a fixed temperature, intensity of radiation (Eλ) increases
with increase in the wavelength and becomes maximum for a
particular λ = λm and decreases Beyond this λ.
• 3. Also, If the temperature of a blackbody increases,
There is shift in λm towards lower wavelength side such that
• λmT =constant (Wien’s Displacement law)
• 4. Area under the each curve gives the total energy emitted
per unit area per unit time of the blackbody.
 Planck’s Radiation Law
• Such behaviour of black body radiation spectrum was not explained with
the existed theories in classical physics.
• To understand these experimental observations,
• In 1901, Planck introduced the idea of Quantum theory of heat radiation.
• Where energy is emitted in the form of packets or quanta called photons.
• Planck’s Assumptions:
• 1. A chamber containing black body radiations contains Simple harmonic
oscillators or resonators of molecular dimensions which can vibrate with all
possible frequencies.
• 2. Freq. of radiation emitted by an oscillator is same as the frequency of its
vibration.
• 3. An oscillator vibrating with freq. ѵ can emit (or absorb) energy in units of
quanta of magnitude nhѵ in discrete form.
• Hence, Exchange of energy b/w radiation and matter can not takes place
continuously but only in discrete values and integral multiple of hѵ.
 Properties of Photon

• 1. Photons are quanta or smallest packet of energy of EM radiation.

• Its energy is E = nhѵ
• Travel with speed c in vacuum.
• Have no charge, hence can not deflected by E or M fields.
• Have zero rest mass m0 = 0.
• But have definite momentum p = E/c = h/λ
 Photoelectric Effect
• The emission of e-s from the metal surface when illuminated
with the suitable radiation like UV/X-rays, is called
Photoelectric Effect.
• This phenomenon was discovered by Hertz.
• He allowed UV radiation to fall on Zn plate.
• Emitted e-s are called photoelectrons and
• Produced current is called photoelectric current.
• Metals (Zn, Cd, Mg, etc.) UV radiation or higher freq.
radiation.
 Photoelectric Effect
• Absence of any light No flow of current
• But when light falls on the metallic surface, the e-s are ejected.
• The no. of emitted e- and their K.E. depends upon the factors:
• The intensity of incident radiation.
• The potential difference b/w the two electrodes.
• The frequency of incident radiation.
• The use of metal.
• Effect of intensity of incident radiation:
• The photoelectric current increases linearly with the intensity of incident radiation.
• The number of emitted photoelectron is directly proportional to the intensity
(incident radiation).
 Photoelectric Effect
• Effect of potential on Photoelectric current:
• First the frequency and incident radiation kept constant and
photoelectric current of different (anode) potential is measured.
• Initially Iphotoelectric increases with increase in potential on anode.
• On further increase in potential on anode, the emitted photoelectrons are accelerated towards the
anode and saturate.
• If the potential difference is kept zero, it is observed that Iphotoelectric still flows in the same direction.
• Which indicate that the incident radiation not only providing the conducting path but in addition
an EM force to photoelectrons.
• If the potential of the anode is made negative, the Iphotoelectric does not sudden drop to zero. But
flows in the same direction as for positive potentials.
• This shows that the photoelectrons are emitted from the cathode plate with a finite velocity.
• If the negative potential is further increased, the Iphotoelectric decreases and finally becomes zero at
certain value.
• Hence, the negative potential of anode plate at which the photoelectric current becomes zero is
called a cut off potential or stopping potential.
 Photoelectric Effect

• Effect of frequency of incident radiation: Home work

• Effect of photometal: Home work

 Law of Photoelectric emission
• 1. Photoelectric current is proportional to the intensity of incident light.
• 2. For a given metal, there exists a certain minimum frequency of the
incident radiation below which no emission of photoelectrons takes
place. This frequency is called threshold frequency.
• 3. Above the threshold frequency, the maximum kinetic energy of the
emitted photoelectron is independent of the intensity of the incident
light and depends only upon the frequency (or wavelength) of the
incident light.
• 4. It is an instantaneous process, i.e. the emission of photoelectrons
start as soon as light falls on the metal surface. Time lag is < 10-8 s
• 5. It independent of temperature process.
 Einstein’s Photoelectric Equation
• According to Einstein, When an incident photon collides with an e-, it
transfer its energy to the e-.
• For the photoelectric effect, frequency of incident radiation must be higher
than the threshold frequency (ѵ0) of the metal.
• A part of its energy is used to free the e- from the atom and away from the
metal surface (surface pot. barrier). This energy is known as photoelectric
work function (φ0) of metal.
• The remaining part is used in giving K. E. To the e-.
• hѵ = φ0 +1/2 (mv2) (1)
• If ѵ0 is the threshold frequency, then φ0 = hѵ0. (2)
• hѵ = hѵ0 +1/2 (mv2)
• 1/2 (mv2) = h (ѵ - ѵ0 )
• For this equation, Einstein was awarded Nobel Prize in physics in 1913.
 Einstein’s Photoelectric Equation

• If ѵ < ѵ0 , No e- can be emitted.

• If ѵ > ѵ0 , Each photon ejects one photoelectron from metal
surface.

• No matter how low the intensity of incident radiation, e- will be ejected

out instantly if incident radiation exceeds the threshold freq.
• At a fixed freq., the no. ejected e- increases with intensity of the light
but does not depend on its freq.
• The K.E. of the ejected e-s depends on the freq. but not on the
intensity of the beam
 Problems
• The work function of Li is 2.5 eV. Find the maximum wavelength of light
that can cause photoelectric effect in Li.

• Calculate the KE of a photoelectron (in eV) Emitted on shining light of

wavelength 6.210-6 m on a metal surface. The work function of metal is
0.1 eV. (h = 6.610-34 Js).

• Ultraviolet light of wavelength 350 nm and intensity 1 W/m2 is directed at

a potassium surface.
• (a) find the maximum KE of the photoelectrons.
• (b) if 0.5 % of the incident photons produce photoelectrons, how many
photoelectrons are emitted if the potassium surface has an area of 1 cm2.
 Compton Effect
• In Compton scattering, there is collision between a single photon of
energy hѵ and an e- (assumed at rest).
• During collision some of photon’s energy is transferred to the e-.
• Which results scattered photon of lower energy (hѵ’) or higher λ’.
 Compton Effect
• In 1921, A. H. Compton discovered and Noble prize in 1927.
• When a monochromatic beam of X-ray photon( or lower wavelength, -
rays) strikes an electron (assumed at rest in the laboratory coordinate
system),
• It is scattered away from its original path and
• e- receives an impulse and start to move.
• hѵ = hѵ’ + K or hѵ - hѵ’ = K (1)
• Remember from STR,
• Energy E=pc and
• p = E/c = hѵ /c (momentum of photon)
 Compton Effect
E= hѵ’ and
• Using the principle of conservation of momentum. P= hѵ’/c
• Initial momentum = final momentum E= hѵ and
• hѵ /c + 0 = (hѵ’/c) cosφ + p cosθ (2) P= hѵ /c
• 0 + = (hѵ’/c) sinφ - p sinθ (3)
• Now both the equations multiplying by c
• pc cosθ = hѵ - hѵ’ cosφ (4)
• pc sinθ = hѵ’ sinφ (5)
• (pc)2 = m2v2c2 = (hѵ)2 + (hѵ’)2 - 2 (hѵ) (hѵ’) cosφ (6) E= m0c2 and 0

• Total energy of the particle P= 0

• hѵ + m0c2 = hѵ’ + mc2 (m is relativistic mass of e) (7)
• mc2 = hѵ - hѵ’ + m0c2 (8)
• Now squaring eqn (8)
• m2c4 = (hѵ)2 + (hѵ’)2 - 2(hѵ) (hѵ’) + m02c4 + 2(hѵ - hѵ’)m0c2 (9)
• Subtracting (6) from (9)
• m2c2 (c2- v2) = - 2(hѵ) (hѵ’) + m02c4 + 2(hѵ - hѵ’)m0c2 + 2 (hѵ) (hѵ’) cosφ
• m02c4 = + m02c4 + 2(hѵ - hѵ’)m0c2 - 2(hѵ) (hѵ’) (1- cosφ)
• 2(hѵ - hѵ’)m0c2 = 2(hѵ) (hѵ’) (1- cosφ)
 Compton Effect
• m0c2(hѵ - hѵ’) = hѵ* hѵ’ (1- cosφ) (12)
• Now converting in wavelength form
1 1 h𝑐 h𝑐
• h𝑐*m0c2( - ) = * (1- cosφ)
λ λ′ λ λ′
•
λ′ −λ h
• m0c( ) = (1- cosφ)
λ′λ λ′λ′
h
• λ′ − λ = (1- cosφ) (13)
m0c

• 𝝀′ − 𝝀 = λ = 𝝀c (1- cosφ), (14) where 𝝀c is Compton wavelength

• If φ = 180°, 𝝀′ − 𝝀 =λ = 2𝝀c (maximum change in wavelength)
• For an e-, 𝝀c = 2.426 pm
• 1. Calculate the λ for X-ray of the wavelength 0.1 nm at φ = 180°
 Compton Effect
• Change in wavelength with scattering angle
 Photoelectric vs Compton effect
Photoelectric
• Energy of incident photon is
completely absorbed by the
bound e-.
• e- is ejected out with an energy
equal to the energy absorbed by it
minus the work function.
Compton effect
• Photon strikes a free or loosely
bound e- and provides a part of
its energy to the e- responsible it
to recoil.
• Photon exists with a reduced
energy and scattered.
• Energy and momentum both
must be conserved.
Problem
Problems
 Pair Production (By Anderson in 1932)
• The process, when a photon is materialize into an e- and e+, is called pair
production.
• In this process, Electromagnetic energy is converted into matter.
• No conservation principles are violated
• Charge conservation, total energy (including rest energy) and linear momentum.
• Definition: when a  ray (of the energy > 1.02 MeV) passes very close to an
atomic nucleus (in nuclear field), it gets converted into electron-positron (e̶ - e+)
and production of these particles is called pair production.
• It is possible only when the incident photon energy exceeds the rest mass
energies of both e- and e+.
• The rest mass energy of e̶ as well as e+ is 0.51 MeV (try to calculate it).
• Presence of nucleus plays an important role for pair production process, for the
conservation of momentum, which carries away enough photon momentum for
the process to occur.
• Because nucleus has enormous mass and absorb small fraction of photon energy.
• Energy and linear momentum could not both be conserved if pair production
were to occur in empty space, so it does not occur there.
 Inverse of Pair Production
(or Pair Annihilation)

• When a e+ is near to an e- and both come together under the influence of

their opposite charges.
• e+ + e̶ =  + 
• Energy 10.2 MeV = 0.51 + 0.51 MeV
• No nucleus or other particle is required for Pair Annihilation to takes place.
• Show that pair production can not occur in empty space.
 Pair Production
• Why pair Production is not possible in vacuum/ empty space?
• Soln.
• Using principle of energy conservation: hѵ = 2mc2 where m is relativistic mass
• hѵ = 2m0c2 (1) where  = (1-v2/c2)1/2
• Using principle of energy conservation p(e-) , E(e-)
• hѵ /c = 2p cosθ (2)
hѵ
• hѵ = 2pc cosθ
• hѵ = 2 m0v c cosθ
• hѵ = 2 m0 (v/c) c2 cosθ
• Since v/c is always < 1 and cosθ  1
• Hence, hѵ  2 m0c2 (3) p(e-) , E(e+)
• Now comparing (1) and (3)
• Hence it is impossible for pair production to conserve both energy and momentum
unless other object (like nucleus) is involved in the process to carry away part of the
photon momentum.
• Aurther Beiser
 Interaction of radiation with matter

Low photon energy Photoelectric effect is effective

Increasing photon energy Compton effect is effective
But if a metal of greater atomic number is taken then photoelectric
effect remains significant.
 Wave Particle dualism
• Radiation has dual nature.
• Wave nature of radiation is able to explain the certain phenomenon like
• Interference, diffraction, polarisation, etc.
• While other phenomenon like
• Photoelectric effect, Compton effect etc. show that the radiation
behaves as particle (the photon).
• Thus radiation has dual nature. But both the nature can not be occur
simultaneously.
• Radiation as a wave in transmission and as a particle when it interacts
with matter.
• STR too, proved the equivalence of mass and energy i.e. E = mc2.
 Matter Waves
• Similarly, De Broglie gave a hypothesis i.e. matter also has dual nature
(particle as well as wave).
• e- (actually a particle) also shows wave nature under certain conditions.
• The wavelength of the waves depends upon the momentum ( actually
mass and particle’s velocity).
• Hence, the waves associated with a moving particle are called matter
waves.
• λ = h/p = h/mv
 Matter Waves
•De Broglie Waves: A moving body behaves in certain ways as it has a wave nature.
•The relativistic energy of a particle E = (pc)2 +(m0c2 )2
•For, a photon, the rest mass m0 = 0
• E =pc
•We know, energy of a photon E = hѵ
• p = E/c = hѵ/c
• p = h/λ
•Hence Photon’s wavelength λ = h/p = h/mc
• Now particle’s wavelength λ = h/mv
•This is general formula to find the wavelength of any moving particle having momentum.
•Conclusions: 1. Lighter particle Longer de Broglie wavelength
• 2. Faster the particle Smaller de Broglie wavelength
3. De Broglie wavelength is not dependent on its charge.
Q. Calculate the De- Broglie wavelength of electron.
 Davisson-Germer Expt.
• The wave nature of moving e-s was established experimentally by
Davisson and Germer in 1927.
The electron gun produces a fine beam of electrons.
The intensity of e beam can be vary using accelerating potential.
Ni crystal
• The e beam is made to fall on the Ni crystal.
• The incident e’s are scattered in different directions by the atoms of the
crystal.
• These scattered e’s are detected by rotating the detector on a circular scale
at different position.
• The intensity of scattered beam depends upon
• energy of the primary e-,
• The angle primary e- projection
• Position of the detector all these can be varied.
 Davisson-Germer Expt.
• From the curves, following observations were made:
• 1. Intensity of scattered e- depends on the angle of scattering.
• 2. A kink always found at θ = 50°.
• 3. Maximum kink found at 54 V.

• Two questions come in mind.

• 1. Why this newly results
• 2. Why it is not appear until
After the baking of Ni crystal.
 Davisson-Germer Expt.
• dNi = 0.091 nm, θ = 65° (glancing angle, angle b/w the scattered beam of
the electron with the atomic plane of the crystal)
• λe = 2dsinθ = 2*0.091nm*sin65° = 0.165 nm (Experimentally) Also draw
the arrangement of atoms and calculate the relation for wavelength as I
calculate on white board.
• While λDB = 0.166 nm (Theoretically, Here voltage value taken from the
experiment)
• Here wavelength of electron is an excellent agreement with the observed
wavelength.
• Hence, Davisson Germer provides direct verification of de Broglie’s
hypothesis of the wave nature of moving particle.
• In 1929, De Broglie received Nobel Prize.
• The wave nature of moving e is the basis of electron microscope.
• First electron microscope developed in 1932.
 High Resolution TEM Images
Pure SnO2 1mol%Pd:SnO2

5 nm 10 nm

3mol%Pd:SnO2 5mol%Pd:SnO2

10 nm 10 nm

High crystalline quality of the nanoparticles can be seen from the fringes of the HRTEM images.
The interplanar spacings of SnO2 were calculated.
 De-Broglie Hypothesis (λ = h/p = h/mv )
• Problem with De Broglie hypothesis
• EM waves: E and B vary. Sound Waves: Pressure varies.
• Q. What is vary in matter waves?
• If there is a wavelength associated with a moving particle, then we can calculate particle’s velocity.
• vparticle = Ѵ λ (1)
• If E is the energy of the particle, then frequency (ѵ) can written as Ѵ = E/h = mc2/h (2)
• Using (1) and (2),
• De Broglie or phase velocity vphase = (mc2/h) (h/mv) = c2/v (v= particle velocity)
• The wave associated with the particle would travel faster than the particle itself.
• This conflict was due to assumption that material particle is equivalent to a single wave train.
• This paradox was resolved by Schrodinger by postulating that a moving particle is equivalent to a wave
packet instead of single wave train.
 Group Velocity
• A wave packet consists of a group of waves with slightly different velocity
and wavelength.
• Which interfere constructively over only small region of space where the
particle can be located.
• Out of this region these waves interfere destructively so that the amplitude
reduces to zero.
• Such a packet moves with a velocity is called Group Velocity.
• And the individual wave forming the packet have average velocity called the
Phase Velocity.
• Let us consider two waves y1 = A cos (1t - k1x)
• y2 = A cos (2t -k2x)
• y = y1 + y2 = A cos (1t - k1x) +A cos (1t - k1x)
𝜔1+𝜔2 𝑘1+𝑘2 𝜔1−𝜔2 𝑘1−𝑘2
• = 2Acos [( )t – ( )x] cos [( )t – ( )x]
2 2 2 2
 Group Velocity
t kx
• y = 2A cos (t-kx) cos ( -( )
𝟐 𝟐
• Phase Velocity or wave velocity vp = /k = (2Ѵ) / (2/λ)
• Group Velocity Vg = /k = d/dk
2𝜋𝑑Ѵ
• = = - λ2dѴ/𝑑λ
2𝜋𝑑 (1/λ)
 Relation b/w phase velocity and group velocity
• Phase velocity vp = /k (1)
d(vpk)
• Group Velocity Vg = d/dk = (2)
𝑑𝑘
dvp
• Vg = vp +k( ) (3)
𝑑𝑘
• Since k = 2/λ and dk = - (2/ λ2)dλ (4)
• k/dk = - λ/dλ (5)
λ
• Using (3) and (5) Vg = vp –( )dvp
dλ
dvp
• Vg = vp –λ( )
dλ
• Home Work: Find the relation b/w group velocity and particle velocity.
 Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle
• To regard a moving particle as wave group implies that there are
fundamental limits to the accuracy with which we can measure such
particle’s properties such as position and momentum.
• Example:
• The particle corresponding to this wave group may be located within the
group at a particular/fixed time.
• The probability is maximum in the middle.

• Now, if narrower the wave group, particle’s position is specified.

• But wavelength of waves is not defined.
• There are not enough waves to measure λ accurately. λ = h/p
• Particle’s momentum is not a precise quantity.
• Series of momentum measurements will give broad range values.
 Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle

• Wide wave group will have defined wavelength.

• Now momentum is precise quantity.
• Series of measurements will give narrow range of values.
• But where is the particle located exactly at a given time?
• Thus position and momentum of the particle is uncertain at the same
position and at the same time.
• Hence, It is impossible to know both the exact position and exact
momentum of an object at the same time.
 Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle
• We can not know the future because we can not know the present.
• According to Heisenberg, In Q. M., It is impossible to measure both the
exact position and exact momentum of an object at the same time.
• The limit of accuracy with which the position and momentum of
particle can be obtained are as
• x. px  h/ 4
• x. px  ħ/2 where ħ = h/2
• where x is uncertainty in the position of an object at some instant.
• px is uncertainty in the x component of the momentum at the same that
instant.
• Hence, the product of uncertainty in the position (x) of an object at some
instant and uncertainty in the x component of the momentum (px)at the
same instant is equal of greater than ħ/2.
 Forms of uncertainty principle:
Uncertainty in position and momentum x. px  ħ/2
• Uncertainty in energy and time E. t  ħ/2
• Uncertainty in angular momentum and angle J. θ  ħ/2

• Home work : Find out the applications of the uncertainty principle (A. K.
Jha)
• 1. Non-existence of electrons and existence of protons and neutron in
nucleus.
• Also check for proton and neutron in the nucleus.

• 2. Binding energy of an electron in an Atom.

• 3. Finite width of spectral lines
• 4. Strength of nuclear force
Various operators used in Quantum Physics
 Wave function ()
• What is vary in matter waves?
• It is actually  (psi).
• This  itself has no physical interpretation.
• But 2 ,evaluated at a particular place at a particular a time, is
proportional to the probability of finding the body/particle in space
(x, y, z) at a time.
• 2 is actually known as probability density. Hence 2 = P
• 2 = * where *is complex conjugate.
• 2 can not be negative or complex.

Meaning the particle does not exist.

 Wave function ()
• Also,  must be continuous and single values everywhere.
∂ ∂ ∂
• , , must be continuous and single valued every where.
∂x ∂y ∂z
∞
•  must be normalized ∞
2 𝒅𝑽 =1
• It tells that the particle exists somewhere at all times
• A function that obeys normalization condition is said to be
normalised.
• Every acceptable wave function can be normalised.
• Wave function () of a moving particle:
• Since the concept of concentrated group of waves (wave packet) is used to
describe localised particle or photon of radiation.
• The associated de Broglie wave function can be written as  (𝒓, t).
• It’s meaning is that it can have nearly complete information about the state of
a physical system at a particular time.
• The value of the wave function associated with moving particle in the space
at a given time is related to finding the particle there at the same time.
• Physical significance of wave function () :
 Schrodinger Equation (Time Dependent)
• Let us consider a wave function  = 𝑒 −𝑖𝜔(𝑡−𝑥/𝑣)

•  = 𝑒 −𝑖𝜔(𝑡−𝑥/𝑣)
 Postulates of Quantum Mechanics
• The wave function (r, t) give almost complete knowledge of the behaviour of the particle in the
in space and time consistent with the Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle.

• Postulate 1: State of system

• The state of any physical system is specified, at each time t, by a state vector (r, t)
• Postulate 2: Observables and operators
• There is a linear quantum mechanical operator corresponding to every observable.
• x^ =x  px^  = px

• Postulate 3: Eigen value of operators

• The only possible values that can be obtained from the measurement of an observable of a system, whose
operator is A^ are the eigen values An of the equation. A^  = An
∞  = E
• The probability of finding the particle in the space is ∞ 2 𝒅𝑽 .
• And the
• Postulate 4: Expectation value
• Average of large number of independent measurements of an observable corresponding to the operator  is
given as ∞
∗Â𝑑𝑟 ∞
• <A> = ∞∞ and for normalised function ∞ ∗𝑑𝑟 = 1
∞ ∗𝑑𝑟
Application of Schrodinger Equation