THE X-RAY SPECTRUM OF ATOMS

• X-rays are high energy photos (0.01 to 10 nm)

• When fast moving e interact with an atom, x rays are produced,
which are emw which is,
– Unaffected by electric ang magnetic field
– Penetrate through opaque material
– Travel in a straight line.
• Faster the e, more penetrating is radiation
• More number of e, more intense will be the x rays.
X-ray Spectrum:-

• Continuous spectrum
(Bremsstrahlung S)

• Characteristics spectrum
 Properties of X-ray
• X-rays are em waves of very short wavelength
(≈1 Å)
• The speed of the X-rays in vacuum is equal to
the speed of light.
• X-rays undergo reflection and refraction
according to laws of visible light.
 Typical X ray Spectrum

The plot between the intensity and the wavelength of X-rays is

known as X-ray spectrum.
It is a continuous curve superimposed with several sharp
peaks.
The x-ray spectrum has two parts:
Continuous spectrum (the Curve)
Characteristic spectrum (the Peaks)
 Continuous Spectrum

This type of spectrum consists of radiation of all

possible wavelengths within a range starting
with a minimum value (λMIN) called short
wavelength limit to a upper value which
depends upon the voltage across the tube.
 Origin of the continuous spectrum
❑ An accelerated electric charge emits electromagnetic radiation.
❑ The x-rays are the result of the slowing down of high-energy electrons
as they strike the target.
❑ It may take several interactions with the atoms of the target before the
electron loses all its kinetic energy.
❑ The amount of kinetic energy lost in any given interaction can vary from
zero up to the entire kinetic energy of the electron.
❑ Therefore, the wavelength of radiation from these interactions lies in a
continuous range from some minimum value up to infinity.
❑ It is this general slowing down of the electrons that provides the
continuous spectrum, which shows the cutoff of x-rays below a
minimum wavelength value (λMIN) that depends on the kinetic energy of
the incoming electrons.
❑ X-ray radiation with its origin in the slowing down of electrons is called
bremsstrahlung, the German word for “braking radiation.”
❑ Consider an electron accelerated through a
potential difference of ∆V (x-ray tube voltage) ,
hitting a target atom.
❑ The electron’s initial kinetic energy is K = e ∆V.
❑ The electron loses its kinetic energy by an amount
∆K = hf, which appears in the form of x-ray
photon energy (Bremsstrahlung).
❑The amount of kinetic energy lost (∆K) can vary from
zero up to the entire kinetic energy (K) of the electron.
❑ Therefore, the wavelength of Bremsstrahlung radiation
lies in a continuous range from some minimum value up
to infinity.
hc
e V = hfMAX =
hc MIN
MIN =
e V
λMIN depends only on ∆V
Duane and Hunt law 6
 Nuclear explanation of production of Characteristic X-rays
❑ In Bohr model of the atom, shells of electrons surround the nucleus of
the atom containing the protons and neutrons.
❑ The innermost shell, called the K- shell, is surrounded by the L and M -
shells.
❑ When the energy of the electrons accelerated toward the target
becomes high enough to dislodge K- shell electrons, electrons from the
L - and M - shells move in to take the place of those dislodged.
❑ Each of these electronic transitions produces an X-ray with a
wavelength that depends on the exact structure of the atom being
bombarded.
❑ A transition from the L - shell to
the K- shell produces a Kα X-ray,
while the transition from an M - shell
to the K- shell produces a Kβ X-ray.
❑When the energy of the electrons accelerated
toward the target becomes high enough to
dislodge K- shell electrons,

electrons from the L - and M - shells move

in to take the place of those dislodged.
hc
hf = = En − Em

 Characteristic X-ray spectrum
❑ The peaks in the x-ray spectrum have wavelengths
characteristic of the target element in the x-ray tube
and hence they form the characteristic x-ray spectrum.
❑ These characteristic X-rays have a much higher intensity
than those produced by the continuous spectra, with Kα X-
rays having higher intensity than Kβ X-rays.
❑ The important point here is that the wavelength of these
characteristic X-rays is different for each target atom in
the periodic table (of course only those elements with
higher atomic number have L- and M - shell electrons that
can undergo transitions to produce X-rays)..
If you wish to produce 10.0 nm X rays in the
laboratory, what is the minimum voltage you
must use in accelerating the electrons?

What is the minimum voltage applied to an X

ray tube to produce X-ray of wavelength 1
Angstrom?
In X-ray production, electrons are accelerated
through a high voltage ΔV and then decelerated
by striking a target. Show that the shortest
wavelength of an x-ray that can be produced is
1240 𝑛𝑚. 𝑉
𝜆𝑚𝑖𝑛 =
Δ𝑉
 Moseley’s relation
Moseley’s observation on the characteristic K x-rays
shows a relation between the frequency (f) of the K
x-rays and the atomic number (Z) of the target element
in the x-ray tube:
f = C (Z − 1)
C is a constant.
Importance of Moseley’s Law:
According to this law, it is the
atomic number and not atomic
weight of an element which
determines its characteristic
properties, both physical and
chemical. Therefore atoms must be
arranged in the periodic table
according to their atomic numbers
and not according to their atomic
weights.
 Bohr theory and the Moseley plot:
According to Bohr’s formula:
The frequency of radiation corresponding to a transition
in a one-electron atom between any two atomic levels
differing in energy by ΔE

E m Z 2e 4  1 1 
f = = 2 3 
 2 − 2 
h 8  oh  n f ni 

In a many-electron atom, for a K transition, the effective

nuclear charge felt by an L-electron can be thought of as
equal to +(Z–b)e instead of +Ze,
where b is the screening constant due to the
screening effect of the K-electron.
 Bohr theory and the Moseley plot:
 Frequency of the K x-ray is
m (Z − b) e  1 1 
2 4
f =  2 − 2 
8  oh
2 3
 1 1 2 
 3 m e4  2
and f =   (Z − b )
2 3 
 32  oh 
or f = C (Z − 1) sin ce b  1

15
 THE X-RAY SPECTRUM OF ATOMS
A K x-ray results due to the transition of the electron
from L-shell to K-shell. A K x-ray results due to the
transition of the electron from M-shell to K-shell.
When the vacancy arises in the L-shell, an L-series (L,
L, L) of x-rays results.

Q: Calculate the cutoff wavelength for the continuous

spectrum of x-rays emitted when 35-keV electrons fall
on a molybdenum target.

16
 THE X-RAY SPECTRUM OF ATOMS

HRK-Exercise 48.1: Show that the short-wavelength

cutoff in the continuous x-ray spectrum is given by
1240 pm
MIN =
V
where ΔV is the applied potential difference in
kilovolts.
HRK-Exercise 48.5: Electrons bombard a
molybdenum target, producing both continuous and
characteristic x-rays. If the accelerating potential
applied to the x-ray tube is 50.0 kV, what values of
(a) λMIN (b) λKβ (c) λK result ? The energies of the
K-shell and L-shell in the molybdenum atom are –20.0
keV and –2.6 keV, respectively.
17
 THE X-RAY SPECTRUM OF ATOMS

HRK-Exercise 48.9: X-rays are produced in an x-ray

tube by a target potential of 50.0 keV. If an electron
makes three collisions in the target before coming to
rest and loses one-half of its remaining kinetic energy
on each of the first two collisions, determine the
wavelengths of the resulting photons. Neglect the
recoil of the heavy target atoms.
HRK-Exercise 48.12: The binding energies of K-shell
and L-shell electrons in copper are 8.979 keV and
0.951 keV, respectively. If a K x-ray from copper is
incident on a sodium chloride crystal and gives a first-
order Bragg reflection at 15.9 when reflected from
the alternating planes of the sodium atoms, what is
the spacing between these planes ?
Q. Which element has a Kα x- ray line whose
wavelength is 0.18 nm? (R=1.097*10^7m-1)
X-RAYS AND THE NUMBERING OF THE ELEMENTS

HRK-Sample Problem 48-3: A cobalt target is

bombarded with electrons, and the wavelengths of its
characteristic x-ray spectrum are measured. A second,
fainter characteristic spectrum is also found, due to an
impurity in the target. The wavelengths of the K
lines are 178.9 pm (cobalt) and 143.5 pm (impurity).
What is the impurity ?

22
1. Explain the continuous x-ray spectrum with a schematic plot of the
spectrum. [2]

2. Obtain an expression for the cutoff wavelength in the continuous x-ray

spectrum. [4]

3. Explain the characteristic x-ray spectrum with a schematic plot of the

spectrum. [2]

4. Explain the origin of characteristic x-ray spectrum with a sketch of x-ray

energy level diagram. [3]

5. Write Moseley’s relation for the frequency of characteristic x-rays. Sketch

schematically the Moseley’s plot of characteristic x-rays. What is the
importance of Moseley’s law

6. Obtain Moseley’s relation for characteristic x-ray frequency from Bohr

theory. [4]