College of Natural and Computational Sciences

Department of Physics
Modern Physics (Phys2402)
Deresse Ahmed (MSc. in Quantum Optics)

Class Schedule: Monday (2:30-4:30) & Thursday (4:30:6:30)

Monday, May 23, 2022

Wolkite, Ethiopia

1
 What are the major subfields in Physics?

• Classical Physics (pre 20th century)

• Mechanics → forces, motion
• Thermodynamics → heat, temperature
• Electricity and magnetism → charge, currents
• Optics → light, lenses, telescopes
• Modern Physics (20th century)
• Atomic and nuclear → radioactivity, atomic power
• Quantum mechanics
• Particle physics
} → basic structure matter
• Condensed matter → solids and liquids, computers, lasers
• Relativity, Cosmology → universe, life!
 Problems with Newton’s Laws

• Newton’s laws, which were so successful in allowing us to understand the

behavior of big objects such as the motions of the planets, but failed when
applied to explain atomic-level phenomena.

• This is not surprising since Newton’s laws were discovered by considering

the behavior of macroscopic objects, like planets

• Physical “laws” may always have a limited range of applicability, and must
be continually tested to find their limitations
 The Failure of the Classical Physics

• We will now discuss an example of an effect that could not be explained by the
pre- 20th century laws of physics.

• The discovery of the correct explanation led to a revolution in the way we

think about light and matter, particles and waves

• The new concepts also led to a revolution in technology that has changed our
lives, e.g., the semiconductor led to the introduction of the personal computer
and cell phones
 The Problems with Classical Physics

❖ Black Body Radiation: Classical physics predicted that hot objects would instantly radiate away
all their heat into electromagnetic waves. The calculation, which was based on Maxwell's
equations and Statistical Mechanics, showed that the radiation rate went to infinity as the EM
wavelength went to zero, “The Ultraviolet Catastrophe”. Plank solved the problem by
postulating that EM energy was emitted in quanta with 𝐸 = ℎ𝑓.

❖ The Photoelectric Effect: When light was used to knock electrons out of solids, the results were
completely different than expected from Maxwell's equations. The measurements were easy to
explain (for Einstein) if light is made up of particles with the energies Plank postulated.
 The Problems with Classical Physics

❖ Atoms: After Rutherford found that the positive charge in atoms was concentrated in a
very tiny nucleus, classical physics predicted that the atomic electrons orbiting the
nucleus would radiate their energy away and spiral into the nucleus. This clearly did not
happen. The energy radiated by atoms also came out in quantized amounts in
contradiction to the predictions of classical physics.
➢ The Bohr Atom postulated an angular momentum quantization rule, 𝐿 = 𝑛ℏ for 𝑛 =
1,2,3 …, that gave the right result for hydrogen, but turned out to be wrong since the
ground state of hydrogen has zero angular momentum. It took a full understanding of
Quantum Mechanics to explain the atomic energy spectra.
 The Problems with Classical Physics

❖ Compton Scattering: When light was scattered off electrons, it behaved just like a particle
but changes wavelength in the scattering; more evidence for the particle nature of light and
Plank's postulate.
❖ Waves and Particles: In diffraction experiments, light was shown to behave like a wave
while in experiments like the Photoelectric effect, light behaved like a particle. More
difficult diffraction experiments showed that electrons (as well as the other particles) also
behaved like a wave, yet we can only detect an integer number of electrons (or photons).
Quantum Mechanics incorporates a wave-particle duality and explains all of the above phenomena.
In doing so, Quantum Mechanics (QM) changes our understanding of nature in fundamental ways.
While the classical laws of physics are deterministic (classical physics is deterministic), QM is
probabilistic. We can only predict the probability that a particle will be found in some region of
space.
The new idea of QM is that every particle's probability (as a function of position and time) is equal to
the square of a probability amplitude function and that these probability amplitudes obey a wave
equation. This is much like the case in electromagnetism where the energy density goes like the square of the
field and hence the photon probability density goes like the square of the field, yet the field is made up of
waves. So probability amplitudes are like the fields we know from electromagnetism in many ways.
 The Problems with Classical Physics

• By the late 19th century the laws of physics were based on Mechanics and the law of
Gravitation from Newton, Maxwell's equations describing Electricity and Magnetism,
and on Statistical Mechanics describing the state of large collection of matter.

• These laws of physics described nature very well under most conditions, however,
some measurements of the late 19th and early 20th century could not be understood.

• The problems with classical physics led to the development of Quantum Mechanics
and Special Relativity.
 Modern Physics- Introduction
• “Modern” – 20th Century
• By the end of the 19th century it seemed that all the laws of physics were known
the motion of the planets was understood.
• However, there were a few problems where classical physics (pre-20th century)
didn’t seem to work.
• It became obvious that Newton’s laws could not explain atomic level
phenomena.
 Problems of Classical Mechanics
❑ Limitations of Classical Physics
❖ Experimental results could not be explained by classical mechanics

✓ Blackbody radiation spectrum ✓Compton scattering

✓ Photoelectric effect ✓ Emissions spectrum of hydrogen
✓ The wave-like character of particles such as electrons, exhibit dual nature (particle and
wave-like both) is ignored by classical mechanics.

✓ In addition to those quantization also introduced due to the failure of classical.

All of the above can be easily explained by the existence of 'quanta,' but are impossible
to explain through purely classical physics.
 Blackbody Radiation Spectrum
❑ Blackbody
❖ Any body with a temperature above absolute zero emits light at all wavelengths.
✓ If the body is perfectly black (so it doesn't reflect any light), then the light that comes from it is called blackbody radiation.

❖Some experimental facts about blackbody radiation:

➢ The Spectrum of thermal radiation depends on two types of characteristics of temperature and
nature of the material

➢ With increase in temperature of material the amount of emitted radiation also increase and wavelength
decreases it means, it emits more blackbody energy at all wavelength.

➢ Spectrum of Thermal radiation depend upon shape and nature of material

 Blackbody Radiation Spectrum
❑ Classical Physics Explanation
➢ Light is an electromagnetic wave that is produced when an electric charge vibrates.
➢ Heat is just the kinetic energy of random motion. In a hot body, electrons vibrate in random directions and
produce light as a result.
➢ A hotter object means more energetic vibrations and so more light is emitted by a hotter object, it glows
brighter. So far, so good. But classical physics could not explain the shape of the blackbody spectrum.
➢ The electrons in a hot body can vibrate with a range of frequencies, ranging from very few vibrations per
second to a huge .
➢ Classical physics said that each frequency of vibration should have the same energy.
✓ This means that, there should be no limit to the energy of the light produced by the electrons vibrating
at high frequencies. WRONG!! Experimentally, the blackbody spectrum always becomes smaller.
(short wavelength, high frequency).
Blackbody Radiation Spectrum
 Blackbody Radiation Spectrum
❑ 1900, Max Planck came up with the solution
➢ He proposed that the classical idea that each frequency of vibration should have the same energy must be wrong.
➢ Instead, Planck said that energy is not shared equally by electrons that vibrate with different frequencies.
➢ Energy depends on the frequency of vibration. Here is Planck's rule for the a quantum of energy for a vibrating
electron:
𝐸 = ℎ𝑓
where ℎ is Planck's constant. Its value is about 6.63 𝑥 10−34 𝐽. 𝑠
➢ How does this explain the spectrum of blackbody radiation?
✓ Planck said that an electron vibrating with a frequency 𝑓 could only have an energy of 1ℎ𝑓, 2ℎ𝑓, 3ℎ𝑓, 4ℎ𝑓,
..., i.e. energy of vibrating electron = 𝑛ℎ𝑓. If it doesn't have at least an energy of 1hf, it will not vibrate at all
and can't produce any light .
✓ Planck said: at high frequencies the amount of energy in a quantum, hf, is so large that the high-frequency
vibrations can never get going! This is why the blackbody spectrum always becomes small (high frequency).
 The photoelectric effect- photons
photoelectrons
LIGHT

Metal plate

• When light shines on a metal surface, electrons may pop out

• Photoelectrons are only emitted if the wavelength of the light is shorter
than some maximum value, no matter how intense the light is, so the color
(wavelength) is critical
• blue light makes electrons pop out, red light does not
 Photoelectric Effect
❑ Photoelectric effect
❖ When light shines on the surface of a metallic substance, electrons in the metal
absorb the energy of the light and they can escape from the metal's surface.
❖ It is used to produce the electric current that runs many solar-powered devices.
Using the idea that light is a wave with the energy distributed evenly throughout
the wave.
❖ Classical Physicists expected that when using very dim light, it would take
some time for enough light energy to build up to eject an electron from a
metallic surface. WRONG!! Experiments show that if light of a certain
frequency can eject electrons from a metal, it makes no difference how dim the
light is. There is never a time delay.
Photoelectric Effect
https://showmethephysics.com/home/animations3/modernP
hysics/photoEE.htm

✓ Threshold frequency, 𝒇𝒐 is the minimum photon

frequency capable of eliciting the photoelectric effect
and it depends on the metal.
✓ Photoelectrons are the electrons that are ejected from
the metal surface.
✓ Work function/ Threshold energy is the minimum
amount of energy required to induce photoemission of
electrons from a specific metal surface.
✓ It is the minimum amount of energy required to remove
an electron from the metal surface.
 Photoelectric Effect
❑ Experimental Observation of Photoelectric Effect
❖ For a given metal, there exists a certain minimum frequency above which the photoelectric
effect takes place which is known as threshold frequency.
❖ Maximum kinetic energy of the emitted photoelectrons increases as the frequency of the
incident light is increased keeping the number of incident photons to be fixed.
❖ Above threshold frequency, maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons depends only on
the frequency of incident light but is independent of the intensity of incident light.
❖ For a given metal and frequency of incident light, the rate at which the photoelectrons
ejected is directly proportional to the intensity of incident light. An increase in the magnitude
of the incident light increases the magnitude of the photoelectric current.
❖ The time lag between the incidence of photons and radiation of photoelectric effect is very
small, nearly 10−9 second.
 Photoelectric Effect
❑ Summary
➢ Based on the wave model of light, physicists predicted that increasing light amplitude would increase the
kinetic energy of emitted photoelectrons, while increasing the frequency would increase measured current.
➢ Experiments showed that increasing the light frequency increased the kinetic energy of the photoelectrons,
and increasing the light amplitude increased the current.
➢ Based on these findings, Einstein proposed that light behaved like a stream of photons with an energy of
E = ℎ𝑓
➢ The work function, Φ, is the minimum amount of energy required to induce photoemission of electrons from
a specific metal surface.
➢ The energy of the incident photon must be equal to the sum of the work function and the kinetic energy of a
photoelectron:
𝑬𝒑𝒉𝒐𝒕𝒐𝒏 = 𝑲𝑬𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒏 + 𝚽
 Photoelectric Effect
Example
1. The work function of copper metal is Φ = 7.53 × 10−19 𝐽. If we shine light with a
frequency of 3.0 × 1016 𝐻𝑧 on copper metal.
a. Will the photoelectric effect be observed?
b. What is the kinetic energy of the photoelectrons ejected ?
1
a. 𝐸𝑝ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛 = ℎ𝑓 = 6.63 × 10−34 𝐽. 𝑠 ∗ 3.0 × 1016 𝑠
b. 𝐸𝑝ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛 = 𝐾𝐸𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛 + Φ
𝐸𝑝ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛 = 2.0 × 10−17 𝐽
𝐾𝐸𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛 = 𝐸𝑝ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛 − Φ
Now compare our calculated photon energy to copper's
𝐾𝐸𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛 = 2.0 × 10−17 𝐽 − 7.53 × 10−19 𝐽
work function:
𝐾𝐸𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛 = 1.9 × 10−19 𝐽
𝐸𝑝ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛 > 𝜙
2.0 × 10−17 𝐽 > 7.53 × 10−19 𝐽
Thus, we would expect to see photoelectrons ejected
from the copper.
 Homework
1. When we shine light with a frequency of 6.20 × 1014 𝐻𝑧 on a mystery metal, we observe the ejected
electrons have a kinetic energy of 3.28 × 10−20 𝐽. Some possible candidates for the mystery metal are shown
in the table below:

Based on this information, what is the most likely identity of our mystery metal?
2. What is the energy in joules and electron volts of a photon of 420-nm violet light?
3. What is the maximum kinetic energy of electrons ejected from calcium by 420-nm violet light, given that the
binding energy (or work function) of electrons for calcium metal is 2.71 eV?
 Answer
1. We know that
𝑬𝒑𝒉𝒐𝒕𝒐𝒏 = 𝑲𝑬𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒏 + 𝚽
𝚽 = 𝑬𝒑𝒉𝒐𝒕𝒐𝒏 − 𝑲𝑬𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒏
𝑬𝒑𝒉𝒐𝒕𝒐𝒏 = 6.63 × 10−34 𝐽. 𝑠 ∗ 6.20 × 1014 𝒔−𝟏 = 𝟒. 𝟏𝟏 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟗 𝑱
Then
𝚽 = 𝟒𝟏. 𝟏𝟏 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟐𝟎 𝑱 − 𝟑. 𝟐𝟖 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟐𝟎 𝑱 = 𝟑. 𝟕𝟖 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟗 𝑱
Therefore, mystery metal is sodium.
ℎ𝑐
2. 𝐸𝑝ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛 =
𝜆
6.63 × 10−34 𝐽. 𝑠 × 3.00 × 108 𝑚/𝑠
𝐸𝑝ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛 = 3. Using the relation 𝑲𝑬𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒏 = 𝑬𝒑𝒉𝒐𝒕𝒐𝒏 − 𝚽
420 × 10−9 𝑚
19.89 𝑲𝑬𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒏 = 2.96 𝑒𝑉 − 2.71 eV
= × 10−17 𝐽
420 𝑲𝑬𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒏 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟓 𝒆𝑽
𝐸𝑝ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛 = 4.74 × 10−19 𝐽
since 1 𝑒𝑉 = 1.60 × 10−19 𝐽
Therefore,
𝐸𝑝ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛 = 2.96 𝑒𝑉
 ATOMS: Classical Physics vs Quantum Physics
❖ According to Maxwell's equations:- Maxwell's law of electricity and magnetism, an
electron is fail to the nucleus, because of the attractive force of the electron would spiral
into the proton in a minute fraction of a second, and so atoms could not exist. This is the
limitation of classical physics.
❖ In 1913 Niels Bohr postulated that electrons move around the nucleus in well-defined
energy levels which are distinctly separated from each other, and that the spiraling-in of the
electrons into the nucleus does not occur, for the reason that an electron cannot exist in
between these allowed energy levels. It can jump from one energy level to another, but it
cannot exist in between.
ATOMS: Classical Physics vs Quantum Physics
• According to classical physics, an orbiting electron in an
atom should continually radiate away energy as
electromagnetic waves.
• Very quickly the electron would loose all of its energy and
there would be no atoms!
• In the Bohr model of the hydrogen atom, there are only
certain allowed orbits, and each allowed orbit has a
certain radius and a certain energy.
• Bohr said that when an electron is in an allowed orbit,
the electron will not produce electromagnetic radiation.
 The Bohr Atom
• The electrons move in certain allowed,
“stationary” orbits or states in which
then do not radiate.
Nucleus
+ • The electron in a high energy state can
make a transition to a lower energy state
Ef by emitting a photon whose energy was
Ei
the difference in energies of the two
states, hf = Ei - Ef

The orbits farther from the

nucleus are higher energy states
than the closer ones
Line spectra of atoms

Line spectra are like atomic fingerprints.

Forensic scientists use line spectra to
identify substances.
Line spectra of atoms….
Line spectra of atoms…
 Emission & Absorption

+ transition to a + transition to a
lower energy higher energy
state state

An electron in a low energy state can absorb

When an electron jumps from a high energy
a photon and move up to a high energy state
state to a low energy state it emits a photon
→ absorption spectrum
→ emission spectrum
 Emission Spectra of Hydrogen Atom

❖The hydrogen spectrum had been observed in the infrared (IR), visible, and ultraviolet
(UV), and several series of spectral lines had been observed. (See Figure below.) These
series are named after early researchers who studied them in particular depth.
❖The observed hydrogen-spectrum wavelengths can be calculated using the following
formula: 1 1 1
=𝑅 −
𝜆 n𝑓2 𝑛𝑖2

where λ is the wavelength of the emitted EM radiation and R is the Rydberg constant,
determined by the experiment to be R = 1.097 × 107 / m.
❖The constant 𝑛𝑓 is a positive integer associated with a specific series.
✓ For the Lyman series, 𝑛𝑓 = 1, which is entirely in the UV.
✓ for the Balmer series, 𝑛𝑓 = 2, which is entirely in visible .
✓ for the Paschen series, 𝑛𝑓 = 3; which is entirely in IR.
 Emission Spectra of Hydrogen Atom

For constructive interference

#1. What is the distance between the slits of a grating that produces a 𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝑚𝜆
first-order maximum for the second Balmer line at an angle of 15º? where 𝑑 is the distance between slits and
1 1 1
𝜃 is the angle from the original direction
For hydrogen spectrum wavelength:- =𝑅 2− 2 of the beam. The number 𝑚 is the order
𝜆 n𝑓 𝑛𝑖
The Balmer series requires that nf = 2.
1 1 1 of the interference.
The first line in the series is taken to be = 1.097 × 107 𝑚−1 2 − 2
𝜆 2 4 𝑚𝜆
for ni = 3, and so the second would 1 𝑑 = , 𝑚 = 1 (first order maximum)
= 2.057 × 106 𝑚−1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝜆
have ni = 4. Inverting to find 𝜆 give 𝒅 = 𝟏. 𝟖𝟖 𝝁𝒎
𝝀 = 𝟒𝟖𝟔 𝒏𝒎
 Blue and red photons - example

• How much energy does a photon of wavelength = 350 nm (nanometers) have

compared to a photon of wavelength = 700 nm?
• Solution: The shorter wavelength photon has the higher frequency. The 350 nm
photon has twice the frequency as the 700 nm photon. Therefore, the 350 nm
photon has twice the energy as the 700 nm photon.
34