INTRODUCTION

Until the middle of the nineteenth century the Newtonian Physics which was derived from
physical observations of material objects, their characteristics and behaviour enjoyed the
success of explaining most available experimental facts. However, when the same laws were
applied to the particles such as electrons, protons, neutrons, nucleus etc which were too
small to be seen through the highest-powered microscopes, serious difficulties were
encountered. It means that the classical concept is not valid in the region of atomic
dimensions. Hence came the requirement of refining the earlier theories. The theory of
relativity and quantum mechanics are examples of this. The quantum mechanics was
applicable to microscopic objects while the theory of relativity describes macroscopic
phenomenon. It was only later, that the application of quantum mechanics to macroscopic
objects like neutron stars also became a necessary. Similarly, the theory of relativity found
its microscopic application in the motion of elementary particles.
Failure of classical Physics: Classical physics failed to account for the following
experimental facts:
1. Black body spectrum 4. Stability of atoms
2. Photoelectric effect 5. Atomic spectra
3. Specific heat of solids 6. Compton effect
Black body spectrum:
A body which can absorb radiation of all wavelengths incident on it is called a black body.
At the same time, it can emit all the wavelengths when heated.
The radiation emitted by a black body (λ,Eλ &Iλ) depends only on its surface temperature.
Experimental facts:
1. Black body spectrum (Eλ & λ) is continuous at a given surface temperature. (Eλ=energy
density. It is the energy contained per unit volume of the black body at a particular
wavelength λ).
2. As temperature increases, the peak shifts to lower wavelength side.
3. Total energy emitted at a particular wavelength is directly proportional to the fourth
power of its absolute temperature (Total area under the curve).
Classical physics:
In 1993, Wien arrived at an emperical formula based on thermodynamics. It is given by
a
Eλ(T) dλ= λ5 e- b/λT dλ
Where a & b are constants. This relation is known as Wien’s distribution law. It holds good
at lower wavelengths but gives lower values at higher wavelengths. Further he deduced for
the wavelength corresponding to maximum intensity
0.0029
λmax = .
T

This is known as Wien’s displacement law.

The emissivity of a black body is E=σT4 . This is known as Stefan’s law. σ=5.68x108 Wm-2K-4
=Stefan’s constant.

Rayleigh-Jeans law:
Applying the law of equipartition of energy,
𝐸 λ 𝑑𝜆 = (8πkT/λ4) d𝜆
Where k=1.38x10-23 JK-1 =Boltzman’s constant.
It holds good at longer wavelengths. As wavelength decreases, energy density increases.
This law completely breaks down in the UV region, 𝐸 λ → ∞ 𝑎𝑠 λ→ 0.
This is called ‘UV catastrophe’. So Classical physics failed.
Quantum Physics: It was originated from Max Planck in 1900 with the explanation of black
body spectrum.
Planck assumed that each particle in a solid behaves like 3D oscillator. Each oscillator in a
black body can emit and absorb energy in discrete units called quanta. Energy of each
quanta is 𝐸 = ℎ𝜈.
1
𝐸𝜆 d𝜆 = (8πhc/λ5)(𝑒 ℎ𝑐/𝜆𝐾𝑇 −1) 𝑑𝜆

This formula fits the entire black body spectrum. Quantum Physics was successful in
accounting entire black body spectrum
2. Photoelectric effect:
It was accidentally discovered by Heinrich Hertz, a German Physicist, in 1887.
While investigating the electric discharge between two electrodes to produce
electromagnetic waves, Hertz observed that the intensity of the discharge was increased
when the electrodes were illuminated with UV light. This effect suggests that electrons
were emitted from the illuminated surface. This observation led to the phenomenon of
photoelectric effect.
In 1888, Wilhelm Hallwachs observed that, when UV light incident on alkali elements like
zinc, rubidium, sodium, potassium….etc, electrons were liberated instantaneously from their
surface. [ Threshold wavelength is in the IR region]

Experimental Facts:
When a light of suitable wavelength is incident on a certain material, electrons are emitted
from its surface. It is called photoelectric effect.
1. Photoelectric effect is instantaneous ( ~10−9 seconds).
2. It depends on frequency of the incident light and not on its intensity.
3. For given material, there is a threshold frequency below which no photoelectric effect
takes place.
4. Maximum K.E of the photoelectrons depend on frequency and not on intensity of the
incident light.
Based on Classical Physics which consider light as electromagnetic wave:
1. Photoelectric effect is cannot be instantaneous. (EX: 4000Å UV light will take nearly 500
days to liberate photoelectrons)
2. It should be an intensity dependent phenomenon. It should occur for all the frequencies.
3. There cannot be a threshold frequency below which photoelectric effect cannot be seen.
4. Photoelectrons can carry any amount of energy.
Classical physics failed to account for the observed results on photoelectric effect.
Quantum Physics:
Einstein used Planck’s quantum idea. Further Einstein suggested that ‘photons can behave
like particles’. Based on this idea, Einstein gave
the relation,
1
ℎ𝜈 = 𝜑 + 2
1
𝑚𝑣2 max 𝑚𝑣 2
2
Where ν=incident frequency
ℎ𝜈
𝜑= ℎ𝜈 0 = Work function of the metal
𝜈 0 = Threshold frequency
1
𝑚𝑣2max = Maximum K.E of the photoelectrons
2 𝜑
(It cannot be any amount or continuous energy)
If 𝜈 < 𝜈 0 , there won't be photoelectric emission.
Electron
Einstein's photoelectric equation explains the observed results.
Quantum Physics was successful in accounting photoelectric effect.
3. Specific heat of solids: Experimental Facts:
(i). Specific heat of all solids remains constant above room temperatures.
(ii). As temperature decreases, as temperature reduces to zero 𝑇 → 0𝐾.
Classical Physics:
Using kinetic theory of gases, Boltzman showed that, the
total thermal energy of one mole of solid is given by
𝑢 = 3𝑅𝑇 (From kinetic theory of gases)
Where R=8.14 J/K/mol=Universal gas constant
T=Absolute temperature of the solid
Specific heat at constant volume becomes,
𝐶 V= 𝑑𝑢/𝑑𝑇 = 3𝑅 = 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
for all solids and at all temperature. Hence it fails to account for the experimental fact at
lower temperatures as 𝑇 → 0𝐾.
Dulong and Petit also obtained a semi-emperical relation as
Specific heat x Atomic weight ≅ 6.4
for all solids and above lab temperature. It also could not account for the specific heat as
𝑇 → 0𝐾. In this case also classical physics failed.
Quantum Physics:
First Einstein assumed that each particle in a solid behaves like an independent oscillator.
They are emitting & absorbing energy in terms of quanta, 𝐸 = ℎ𝜈. He arrived at CV ∝ 1/T2
for lower temperature. Theory predicted lower values for CV than the experiment as 𝑇 →
0𝐾.
Debye assumed that, particles in a solid behave like coupled oscillators. He arrived at a
relation for the specific heat as CV∝ 𝑇3 at lower temperature. It accounts fairly well for CV
as 𝑇 → 0𝐾. Debye’s quantum theory was successful in explaining experimental facts on
specific heat of solids.

‘Need of extension of quantum idea’

‘Thus Quantum Mechanics was developed.’
Matter Waves
Louis de-Broglie (France 1924)
1. Nature loves symmetry : Matter manifests itself in two fundamental forms as matter and
energy(Radiation). Nature loves symmetry, i.e. matter and radiation must be mutually
symmetrical [Both radiation and matter should posses dual nature]
2. Parallelism between mechanics and optics: Particle & radiation
[Maupertian principle: Principle of least action in mechanics – moving particle always
chooses that path for which the action is minimum.
Fermate’s principle: light always chooses a path for which the time of transit is minimum.]
Phenomenon like interference, diffraction and polarization of light shows that radiation
exhibits wave nature.
Phenomenon like atomic spectrum, photoelectric effect, Compton effect, thermionic
emission & black body spectrum etc. shows that radiation exhibits quantum (particle)
nature.
de-Broglie Wave Equation
According to Max Planck, light (radiation) propagates as a packet of energy called photon.
Each photon carries an energy
𝐸 = ℎ𝜈 (1)
Where ℎ=planck’s constant and 𝜈=frequency of light.
According to Einstein, photon behaves like a particle and travels with the speed of light.
Energy of the relativistic particle is
𝐸 = 𝑚𝑐 2 (2)
Equating (1) & (2), we get,
𝑐
𝑚𝑐2= ℎ𝜈 = ℎ 𝜆
ℎ ℎ
𝑚𝑐 = 𝜆 ∴𝑝=𝜆

But 𝑚𝑐 = 𝑝=momentum of the photon.

𝒉
∴𝝀=𝒑 (3)

Eqn.(3) connects wave nature and particle nature of light. Further de-Broglie argued that if
light shows particle nature, why can’t matter exhibit wave nature?
de-Broglie made a hypothesis that Eqn (3) is generally valid for all matter and radiation. It
should be applicable to both light as well as material particles. If a particle of mass ‘𝑚’ is
moving with a velocity ‘𝑣’, then it should be associated with a wavelength
 𝒉 𝒉
𝝀 = 𝒑 = 𝒎𝒗 (4)

Eqn. (4) is called as de-Broglie wave equation.

‘λ’ is called de-Broglie wave length. This equation indicates the ‘dual nature of matter.’
Different Forms Of de-Broglie Equation:
ℎ ℎ
1. 𝜆 = 𝑝 = 𝑚𝑣

ℎ 𝑝2
2. λ= [K.E, 𝐸 = 2𝑚. ∴ 𝑝 = √2𝑚𝐸]
√2𝑚𝐸

ℎ 1
3. λ= [𝐸 = 2 𝑚𝑣2 = 𝑞𝑉, where 𝑞 =charge of an electron &
√2𝑚𝑞𝑉

𝑉=p.d through which the particle is accelerated.]

12.26
4. 𝜆 = Å 𝑚𝑣 = √2𝑚𝑞𝑉 For electron 𝑞 = 𝑒 = 1.6 × 10−19 C &
√𝑉
𝑚 =9.1x10-31 kg
ℎ
5. λ= [From kinetic theory of gases, we know
√3𝑚𝑘𝑇
1 3
𝑚𝑣2 = p2/2m = 2 𝑘𝑇. ∴ 𝑝 = √3𝑚𝑘𝑇 ]
2

Boltzman’s constant k=1.38x10-23 J/K & T=absolute temperature.

de-Broglie Equation For a Relativistic Particle:

Energy of a relativistic particle is given by
𝐸 2= 𝑝2c2+m02c4 (5)

E2 =p2c2+E02, where E0=m0c2= rest mass energy

Substituting for ‘p’, from eqn (5), we get
ℎ
5. 𝜆 = 𝑝 = hc/√((E2-E02)), where 𝐸 = 𝐾 + 𝐸 0 =total energy

& 𝐾 =kinetic energy

ℎ
6. λ = 𝑝 =hc/√(K(K+2E0)) (6) or 𝜆 =hc/√((K2+2KE0))

If charged particle is accelerated through a p.d of ‘𝑉’, then 𝐾 = 𝑞𝑉.

Substituting in eqn (6), We get
ℎ 𝐡𝐜
7. λ = 𝑝 = = h/√(2m0qV(1+qV/2E0)) [For electron & proton, q=e]
√(𝐪𝐕(𝐪𝐕+𝟐𝑬𝟎 ))

Note:[Rest mass energy of e=0.511MeV & for p=938MeV, Use E=mc2]

Davisson and Germer Experiment:

F=Tungston filament coated with zinc oxide. It is a good emitter of electrons when heated
by a L.T. (Alkali metal oxide, having low ionization potential and good emitter of electrons)
D1&D2=metallic diaphragms (thin sheets or foils of aluminum) with fine hole. It is kept
positive w.r.t the filament ‘F’.
A = Anode (Aluminum cylinder, accelerating potential of 40 v to 600V)
N= Target of single Ni crystal- It can be rotated using a handle.
S= Shield to block secondary electrons.
IC = Collector = Faraday’s ionization chamber.
S=Circular scale
E= Sensitive galvanometer.
ϕ = co-latitude = angle between the incident & diffracted electron beams. In the expt, ‘ϕ’ is
varied from 200 to 900.
The collector is moved along a circular scale and the corresponding deflection (or current) is
noted in the galvanometer.
Current is a measure of scattered electron beam intensity
The electrons are emitted from the hot filament of an electron gun and are accelerated
using a suitable potential difference between the anode and the cathode. The fine
collimated beam is directed against the face of fine Nickel crystal. The scattered beam is
further directed on to a movable detector connected to the galvanometer. Thus, we
measure the intensity as a function of the scattering angle, the angle between the incident
and the scattered electron beam.
It was observed that there was a strong peak corresponding to a sharp diffraction maximum
in the electron distribution at an accelerating voltage of 54V at and scattering angle of 50
degrees. They attributed the existence of pronounced hump is due to the constructive
interference of the diffracted electron beam from Ni crystal. It is similar to the diffraction of
X-rays from crystals. Davisson and Germer plotted polar graphs (r,θ) for various
accelerating potentials.

Polar graphs(r,𝜃)

For oblique incidence:

The path difference between two rays PQR and P’Q’R’ is 𝐴𝐵 = 2𝑑𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 which should be
equal to 𝑛𝜆 for constructive interference which is known as Bragg’s condition. Here d
represents interplanar distance and 𝜃 is the glancing angle which is the angle between
incident ray and the reflecting plane.
Bragg condition for constructive interference is given by
2𝑑𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝑛𝜆 − − − − − − − − − − − −(1)
In this case, 𝑑 = 0.91Å and 𝑛 = 1.
2𝑑𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 2 × 0.91Å × 𝑠𝑖𝑛650
𝜆= Å= Å = 1.65Å − − − − − (2)
𝑛 1
For Normal incidence:
Here the reflection is considered to occur from adjacent atoms of the same plane as shown
in the figure

The path difference between two interfering rays PQR AND P’Q’R’ is QS = DSinϕ where
ϕ is the colatitude angle and D is the interatomic distance. Hence using the condition for
constructive interference, we can write the Braggs equation in terms of atomic distance
and colatitude angle as
𝐷𝑠𝑖𝑛ϕ= 𝑛𝜆 (3)

Where, D=interatomic distance, ϕ= angle between incident and reflected beam

n=order of reflection & λ=wavelength associated with electrons

In the experiment, ϕ =500 , D=2.15Å & n=1 [First order reflection from (111) crystal plane].
Substituting values in eqn(3), we get

2.15Å × sin500
𝜆=
1
𝜆 = 1.65Å (4)
We can note that result (2) and (4) are obtained on the fact that electrons behave like
waves.
Assuming electrons are charged particles, the de-Broglie wavelength associated with it is
given by
ℎ
𝜆= -----------------(5)
√2𝑚𝑒𝑉

Substituting for V=54volt

6.625 × 10-34
𝜆=
√(2 × 9.1x10-31 × 1.6x10-19 × 54)

𝜆 = 1.67Å (6)
Results(4) & (6) agree well. These results prove that electrons exhibit wave character. This
fact supports de-Broglie hypothesis on matter waves.

Properties of de Broglie’s waves:

It can be noticed that with a material particle in motion two different velocities are
involved. One referring to the mechanical motion of the particle represented v and
the other associated with de Broglie’s wave (vd).
Velocity of the de-Broglie wave is given by the general relation
𝑣𝑑 = 𝜆𝑓 = 𝜆𝜈 (1)
Velocity of the de-Broglie wave is also called a phase velocity (𝑣𝑝 ).

ℎ
We know, 𝜆 = (2)
𝑚𝑣

Where ′𝑣′ is the particle velocity.

For a relativistic particle, ℎ𝜈 = 𝑚𝑐 2
∴ 𝜈 =mc2/h (3)
Substituting for 𝜆 and 𝜈 in eqn (2) & (3) in eqn(1), we get
ℎ 𝑚𝑐 2 𝑐2
𝑣𝑑 = 𝑣 p= = > 1 (4)
𝑚𝑣 ℎ 𝑣

It physically means that, a de-Broglie wave can travel faster than light. It indicates
that, wave travels ahead of the particle. This is an unacceptable condition. In other
words, a moving particle cannot be associated with a single wave.
If we consider the de Broglie wave a single wave of constant amplitude then its
limitations are;
1. Wave can travel faster than light
2. Wave can travel ahead of the particle.
3. A wave can extend from - ∞ to + ∞.
4. Amplitude remains the same.
5. Where is the particle? Which is the position of the particle?
6. Probability of finding the particle remains the same. It means particle can exist
everywhere.
Such a wave is totally unacceptable for a moving particle.
DE-BROGLIE WAVE IS A PECULIAR WAVE
Note: 1. It is a special wave. It can travel in vacuum and even under go dispersion.
2. Not electromagnetic in nature.
3. Cannot be polarised like light waves.
4. de-Broglie waves are waves of possibility. One cannot say whether transverse
waves or longitudinal waves.
Concept of wave packet:
This concept was given by Schrodinger.
Schrodinger suggested that a moving particle can be associated with group of
waves rather than a single wave. These waves are such that they move with a
constant phase and hence undergo constructive interference in a small region of
space and destructive interference elsewhere. Velocity of the individual waves in a
wave packet is also called phase velocity.
The envelope group of waves which undergo constructive interference in small
region, form a wave packet. This wave packet moves with a velocity called group
velocity.
𝑷𝒂𝒓𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒍𝒆 → 𝒘𝒂𝒗𝒆 𝒑𝒂𝒄𝒌𝒆𝒕 ⇏ 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒈𝒍𝒆 𝒘𝒂𝒗𝒆
Note: 1. phase velocity is velocity of individual waves within the packet
2. group velocity of the envelope of the wave packet
3. particle velocity is the velocity of the particle

Group velocity is equal to particle velocity (𝑣𝑔 = 𝑣).

Relation between group velocity and particle velocity:

2𝜋
ω=angular velocity = = 2𝜋𝜈--------------(1)
𝑇
2𝜋
K=propagation constant= --------------------(2)
𝜆

The phase velocity of a wave

𝜆 ѡ
𝑣 p= 𝜆𝜈 = 2П
× 2П𝜈 =
𝑘
− − − − − − − − − − − − − (3)

𝑑ѡ
The group velocity is defined as 𝑣g= -------------(4)
𝑑𝑘

ℎ2𝜋𝜈
Einstein’s equation can be written as E = ℎ 𝜈 = = ℏѡ − − − − − − − (4)
2𝜋
 ℎ ℎ2𝜋
The momentum of the particle in terms de Broglie wave length 𝜆 𝑖𝑠 P=
𝜆
= = ℏk------(5)
𝜆 2𝜋

Differentiating equation (4) and (5)

dE = ℏdѡ----------(6)
dP = ℏdk------------(7)

Therefore, group velocity 𝑣g= 𝑑ѡ

𝑑𝑘
𝑑𝐸
= ----------(8)
𝑑𝑃

1
𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝐸 = 𝑝2
2𝑚

1 𝑝𝑑𝑝
𝑑𝐸 = 2𝑝𝑑𝑝 =
2𝑚 𝑚
𝑑𝐸 𝑝 𝑚𝑣𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒
𝑣g = = = = 𝑣𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒
𝑑𝑃 𝑚 𝑚

Therefore the the wave packet moves with the particle velocity.
Phase velocity and Group velocity
For a non-relativistic particle
1 1
We know 𝐸 = ℎν = 𝑚𝑣 2. ∴ 𝜈 = × 𝑚𝑣 2
2 2ℎ

Now the phase velocity of de-Broglie’s wave becomes,

ℎ 1 𝑣
𝑣 p= 𝑣𝑑 = 𝜆𝜈 = × 𝑚𝑣 2 = .
𝑚𝑣 2ℎ 2

Since particle velocity =group velocity(𝑣 = 𝑣 g), we get

𝑣 p=vg/2
It shows that phase velocity is the average velocity of group of waves associated
with the particle.
Wave packet idea tells that particle can exist anywhere within the wave packet.
Hence trajectory (single path due to translational motion of a point) has no meaning
in quantum mechanics.
The particle is likely to exist where the amplitude of the wave packet is large.
Particle can be located within a small space(or within wave packet) but not at a
specific point. In other words, ‘𝑥 ′ ℎ𝑎𝑠 𝑛𝑜 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑏𝑢𝑡 ∆𝑥 ℎ𝑎𝑠 𝑔𝑜𝑡 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑛 𝑄. 𝑀
Hence there is an uncertainty (error) in the measurement of certain pair of physical
quantities. It is a natural consequence involved in the simultaneous measurement. It
is not due to defects in the measurement but due to inherent limitations of nature.
This fact led to Uncertainty Principle.
Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle(1927-Germany):
It is impossible to measure both position and momentum of a particle simultaneously
and accurately. There is always an uncertainty in their measurements. The product
of their uncertainties is equal to the Planck’s constant ‘ℎ′ .
∆𝑥 ∆𝑝x ≈ ℎ
Rigorous calculations considering de-Broglie waves with wavelengths
varying from 0 to ∞, one can arrive at the uncertainty relation
ћ
∆𝑥 ∆𝑝x≥
𝟐

Such pair of physical quantities are called canonically conjugate pairs.

ћ
Other forms, ∆𝑬 ∆𝒕 ≥ , where E=energy & t=time.
𝟐
ћ
∆𝑱 ∆∅ ≥ ,
𝟐

where J=angular momentum & ∅=angular displacement

ℎ
NOTE: ℏ= = 1.054 × 10−34 𝐽𝑠
2𝜋

Note: Uncertainty is not an error in the instrument or method or theory. It is a

natural consequence, an inherent limitation of nature. It cannot be removed
completely but one can try to keep as minimum as possible. This is the philosophy in
life also.

Concept of wave function: ( Given by Schrodinger)

1.de- Broglie wave equation is λ=h/p for material particles.
2. A moving particle is associated with wave nature.
3.Such particle can be represented by a mathematical function called wave function
‘Ψ’.
4.Wave function is a function of position and time, Ψ(x,y,z,t).
5.In general ‘Ψ’ is a complex function.
6. It could be of the form,
Ψ= 𝑎 + 𝑖𝑏 𝑜𝑟 Ψ = acos(𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥) + 𝑖𝑏𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥)
𝑜𝑟 Ψ = 𝐴𝑒 𝑖(𝜔𝑡−𝑘𝑥) 𝑂𝑅 𝐴𝑒 −𝑖(𝜔𝑡−𝑘𝑥)
7. Ψ itself has no meaning and it is not a measurable quantity. But it contains
complete information about the state of a particle in terms of position and time.
8. |Ψ|2 = Ψ Ψ* = is a +ve quantity and it can be measured.
Born’s interpretation of a wave function:
1. Max Born gave the statistical interpretation of the wave function. The quantity
|Ψ|2 represents the probability of finding the particle per unit volume of space at
time ‘t’ or probability density of the particle.
2. |Ψ|2 proportional to the square of the amplitude (𝐴2 ) or intensity of the wave or
beam of particles.
[ It is analogous to E2 or H2 of an electromagnetic wave].
3. Born’s normalization condition:
An acceptable wave function of a de- Broglie wave must satisfy a mathematical
condition, in 1D-case,
+∞ +∞
∫−∞ |Ψ(x)|2 dx= ∫−∞ Ѱ∗ Ѱ 𝑑𝑥 = 1

if particle is definitely existing in space.

+∞ +∞
4. ∮−∞ Ѱ∗ Ѱ𝑑𝑉 = ∮−∞ |Ѱ|2 𝑑𝑉 =1. [in 3D-case] & V=volume

Conditions for wave function Ψ:

1. Ψ must be finite for all values of 𝑥, 𝑦 & 𝑧.
2. Ψ must be single valued for all values of 𝑥, 𝑦 & 𝑧.
𝜕Ψ 𝜕Ψ ∂Ψ
3. Ψ and , , must be continuous in all regions or across the boundary.
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 ∂z

4. It must go to zero or vanish at the region or boundary where the potential energy
is infinite.
5. Ψ → 0 as 𝑥 → ± ∞.
Note:
If a large number of measurements are made on an observable, then the probability
will be given by the relative number of times the particle is observed in any
particular volume.

Schrodinger’s time dependent equation:

Consider a particle moving along a positive X-direction. The de-Broglie wave
associated with the electron can be represented by a plane wave equation by a wave
function
Ψ(x,t)=A𝑒 −𝑖(𝜔𝑡−𝑘𝑥) (1)
Where A=amplitude of the wave,
2𝜋
ω=angular velocity = = 2𝜋𝜈
𝑇
2𝜋
K=propagation constant=
𝜆
ℎ
We have Planck’s relation E=hν= x 2𝜋𝜈 = ћ𝜔
2𝜋
𝐸
∴𝜔= (2)
ћ
ℎ
We have de Broglie relation λ= .
𝑝

ℎ 2𝜋
We can write, 𝑝 = x = ћ𝑘
2𝜋 𝜆
𝑝
∴𝑘= (3)
ћ

Substituting for 𝜔 and k from eqn’s (2) and (3) in eqn (1), we get
𝑖
Ψ(x,t)= A𝑒 −ћ(𝐸𝑡−𝑝𝑥) (4)
Differentiating with respect to ‘t’
𝑖 𝑖
𝜕Ψ 𝑖 𝑖
= A(− )E𝑒 −ћ(𝐸𝑡−𝑝𝑥 ) = (− )EA𝑒 −ћ(𝐸𝑡−𝑝𝑥)
𝜕𝑡 ћ ћ
𝑖
= (− )EΨ. [Eqn (1) is used]
ћ

Rearranging we get,
𝜕Ψ
𝑖ћ = 𝐸Ψ (5)
𝜕𝑡

Differentiating eqn(4) w.r.t ‘x’

𝑖
𝜕Ψ 𝑖 𝑖
= A(− )(− 𝑝)𝑒 −ћ(𝐸𝑡−𝑝𝑥) = (+ ) 𝑝Ψ
𝜕𝑥 ћ ћ
𝜕Ψ
− 𝑖ћ = 𝑝Ψ (6)
𝜕𝑥

Again differentiating eqn(6) w.r.t ‘x’

𝜕2 Ψ 𝜕Ψ 𝑖 𝑝2
− 𝑖ћ = 𝑝 = 𝑝(+ ) 𝑝Ψ = 𝑖 Ψ
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑥 ћ ћ

𝜕2 Ψ
− ћ2 = 𝑝2 Ψ (7)
𝜕𝑥 2

Total energy of the particle is given by

𝑝2
𝐸 = 𝐾. 𝐸 + 𝑃. 𝐸 = + 𝑉 (8)
2𝑚

Multiplying eqn(8) by Ψ on both sides, we get

 𝑝2
𝐸Ψ= Ψ + 𝑉Ψ (9)
2𝑚

Substituting eqn’s (5) and (7) in eqn(8)

𝜕Ψ ћ2 𝜕2 Ψ
𝑖ћ =− +𝑉Ψ (10)
𝜕𝑡 2𝑚 𝜕𝑥 2

𝑖ℏѰ̇ = 𝐻Ѱ (10a)
Equation(10) & (10a) are known as Schrodinger’s time dependent equation.
ℏ2 𝜕2
𝐻=− +𝑉 is the Hamiltonian operator.
2𝑚 𝜕𝑥 2

Schrodinger’s time independent equation:

In certain physical problems potential energy doesn’t depend on time explicitly. In
such cases, we can separate the variables and write
𝑖 𝑖
Ψ(x,t)= Ψ(x) Ψ(t)= A𝑒 +ћ(𝑝𝑥) 𝑒 − ћ(𝐸𝑡) (11)
Differentiating w.r.t ‘t’
𝑖 𝑖
𝜕Ψ(x,t) 𝑖
= A𝑒 +ћ(𝑝𝑥) (− 𝐸) 𝑒 − ћ(𝐸𝑡) (12)
𝜕𝑡 ћ

Substituting eqn(12) in eqn (10), we get

𝑖 𝑖
𝑖 𝑖 + ( 𝑝 ) − (𝐸𝑡) 𝑖 𝑖
+ (𝑝𝑥) 𝑖 − (𝐸𝑡) 𝑝2 𝜕2 A𝑒 ћ 𝑥 𝑒 ћ
𝑖ћA𝑒 ћ (− 𝐸) 𝑒 ћ =− + V A𝑒 +ћ( 𝑝𝑥) 𝑒 −ћ(𝐸𝑡) (13)
ћ 2𝑚 𝜕𝑥 2

Treating time dependent factor as a constant, we can cancel the term

𝑖
𝑒 − ћ(𝐸𝑡) throughout. Now eqn(13) becomes
𝑖
𝑖 + (𝑝 ) 𝑖
+ ( 𝑝𝑥) 𝑝2 𝜕2 A𝑒 ћ 𝑥
EA𝑒 ћ =− + V A𝑒 +ћ( 𝑝𝑥) (14)
2𝑚 𝜕𝑥 2
𝑖
We know A𝑒 +ћ( 𝑝𝑥) = Ψ(x). Hence, we can write eqn(14) as
ћ2 𝑑2 Ψ(x)
𝐸 Ψ(x) = − + 𝑉 Ψ(x) (15)
2𝑚 𝑑𝑥2

Equation(15) is called Schrodinger’s time independent wave equation.

It can also be expressed as
𝑑2 Ψ(x) 2𝑚
𝑑𝑥 2
+ (𝐸 − 𝑉) Ψ(x) = 0 (16)
ћ2

In 3- dimensional case,
2𝑚
𝛻 2 Ψ(x) + (𝐸 − 𝑉) Ψ(x) = 0 (17)
ћ2
 𝜕2 𝜕2 𝜕2
where 𝛻 2= Laplacian operator = 2 + 2 +
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 2

Note: We can write eqn(15) in terms of an operator called Hamiltonian operator. It

is defined as,
ћ2 𝑑2 ћ2
̂=−
𝐻 + 𝑉 in 1D –case or ̂=−
𝐻 𝛻 2 + 𝑉 in 3D-case.
2𝑚 𝑑𝑥 2 2𝑚

̂ 𝛹 = 𝐸𝛹.
So, Schrodinger’s eqn(15) can be written as 𝐻
̂ is a function of position
This relation is also called eigen equation. The operator 𝐻

QUANTUM MECHANICAL OPERATORS:

An operator is a mathematical rule or construct or procedure. In QM, every

observable or dynamical variable can be associated with an operator.
Observable or dynamical variables: position, velocity, momentum, energy, etc. are
nothing but physical quantities.
Eigen value equation:
If 𝐴̂ is an operator acting on a wave function Ψ, then
𝐴̂ 𝛹 = 𝜆 𝛹 (1)
This is called eigenvalue equation.
(Operator linked with measurable) Wavefunction = (Constant )Wavefunction
Where 𝜆 is a measurable quantity. It is the characteristic value or measurable value
of the observable. It is called eigen value of the operator.
' 𝛹’ is called eigen function.

EXPECTATION VALUES:
If a large number of measurements are made on a dynamical quantity, then the
probability will be given by the relative number of times the particle is observed in
any particular volume. Basically, it is the average value of large number of
measurements on a physical quantity. It is not the experimental outcome of a
measurement.
Expectation value of an observable is defined as
+∞
< 𝐴 > = ∫−∞ Ѱ∗ 𝐴̂ 𝛹𝑑𝑥

for a normalized wave function 𝛹.

If 𝛹 is not normalized, then
∫ Ѱ∗ 𝐴̂ 𝛹𝑑𝑥
<𝐴 >=
∫ Ѱ∗ 𝛹𝑑𝑥

COMMUTATION RELATIONS:
If two dynamical observables are measured simultaneously, the difference in their
values can be expressed in terms of commutator relations in quantum mechanics.
Let 𝐴̂ and 𝐵
̂ are two operators corresponding to two observables. Then,

𝐴̂ 𝛹 =a 𝛹
𝐵̂𝛹=b 𝛹
Where a & b are the eigen values (characteristic measurable quantity). Their
difference (ab-ba) is called the commutator of 𝐴̂ &𝐵̂.
A bracket notation is used to denote the commutator of 𝐴̂ &𝐵̂.
In terms of operators, it can be expressed as,
[A,B] =AB-BA
Method Of Evaluation:
2. Let us evaluate [𝑥, 𝑝𝑥 ]
We can express, [𝑥, 𝑝𝑥 ]=𝑥𝑝𝑥 − 𝑝𝑥 𝑥
Let the operators act on a wave function ‘𝛹’
[𝑥, 𝑝𝑥 ] 𝛹 =(𝑥𝑝𝑥 – 𝑝𝑥 𝑥) 𝛹
Put the corresponding operator relations.
[𝑥, 𝑝𝑥 ] 𝛹 = (𝑥𝑝𝑥 𝛹– 𝑝𝑥 𝑥 𝛹)
𝜕
Write the corresponding operator relations, 𝑥̂ = 𝑥 & 𝑝̂ x = −𝑖ℏ
𝜕𝑥
𝜕 𝜕
[𝑥, 𝑝𝑥 ] 𝛹 = 𝑥(−𝑖ћ ) 𝛹 −(−𝑖ћ )𝑥𝛹
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝛹 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝛹
= −𝑖ћ𝑥 + 𝑖ћ 𝛹 + 𝑖ћ𝑥
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥

= 𝑖ћ 𝛹
[𝑥, 𝑝𝑥 ] 𝛹 = 𝑖ћ 𝛹
∴ [𝑥, 𝑝𝑥 ] = 𝑖ћ
In general,
3. [xi, pj]== 𝑖ћδij , where δij is called kronecker delta function.
Its value is given by, δij = 1 𝑖𝑓 𝑖 = 𝑗
= 0 𝑖𝑓 𝑖 ≠ 𝑗
4. [𝑝j, 𝑥 i] = − 𝑖ћδij
One can show that,
5. [xi, xi ]= 0
6. [pi, pi ]= 0
7. [xi, xj ] = 0
8. [pi, pj]= 0
Some useful relations:
9. [A,B] = −[B,A]
10. [A,BC] = [A,B]C+B[A,C]
11. [AB,C] = [A,C]B+A[B,C]
12. [A,Bn ] = nBn-1 [A,B]
13. [ An,B] = nAn-1[A,B]
14. [x,pxn ]= (𝑖ћ𝑛)𝑝𝑥𝑛−1
15. [xn,px]= (-𝑖ћ𝑛)𝑥 𝑛−1
Note:
1. If ∆𝐴 ∆𝐵 = 0, where A&B are operators.
It means that,
(i) A&B are simultaneously and accurately measurable.
(II) A&B commute with each other.
(iii) A&B are not canonically conjugate pairs.
2. If ∆𝐴 ∆𝐵 ≠ 0
It means,
(i) A&B are not simultaneously and accurately measurable.
(II) A&B do not commute with each other.
(iii) A&B are canonically conjugate pair.
9. Angular momentum: It is defined as

𝐿⃗ = (𝑟 × 𝑝)
It can be expressed as
𝑖 𝑗 𝑘
𝐿⃗ = | 𝑥 𝑦 𝑧|
𝑝𝑥 𝑝𝑦 𝑝𝑧

= 𝑖(𝑦𝑝𝑧 − 𝑧𝑝𝑦 ) − 𝑗(𝑥𝑝𝑧 − 𝑧 𝑝𝑥 ) + 𝑘(𝑥𝑝𝑦 − 𝑦 𝑝𝑥 )

= 𝑖(𝑦𝑝𝑧 − 𝑧𝑝𝑦 ) + 𝑗(𝑧 𝑝𝑥 − 𝑥𝑝𝑧 ) + 𝑘(𝑥𝑝𝑦 − 𝑦 𝑝𝑥 )

=iLx + jLy + kL z
where Lx, Ly & Lz are the components of angular momentum along the respective
axis.
Components of angular momentum:

1. 𝐿x= (𝑦𝑝z−𝑧𝑝y)

2. Ly= (𝑧𝑝x−𝑥𝑝z)

3. 𝐿z= (𝑥𝑝𝑦 − 𝑦𝑝x)

1.Evaluate the commutation value of [𝑥, 𝐻], where 𝐻 is the Hamiltonian operator.
𝑝𝑥2
Soln: We know, 𝐻 = + 𝑉(𝑥), where 𝑉(𝑥) =potential energy
2𝑚
𝑝2 𝑝2
[𝑥, 𝐻 ] = [𝑥, + 𝑉] = [𝑥, ] +[𝑥, 𝑉] Note: 𝑝 = 𝑝x
2𝑚 2𝑚
1
= [𝑥, 𝑝2] + 0. The second term [𝑥, 𝑉] = 0, because both are functions of
2𝑚
position only. Note:[𝑥, 𝑥] = 0 relation is used.
1 1
[𝑥, 𝐻 ] = [𝑥, (𝑝, 𝑝)] = {[𝑥, 𝑝]𝑝 + 𝑝[𝑥, 𝑝]}.
2𝑚 2𝑚

We have[𝑥, 𝑝𝑥] = 𝑖ℏ
1 1
[𝑥, 𝐻 ] = { (𝑖ℏ)𝑝 + 𝑝(𝑖ℏ)} = {𝑖ℏ𝑝x + 𝑖ℏ𝑝x}
2𝑚 2𝑚
𝑖ℏ𝑝x
[𝑥, 𝐻] = .
𝑚

OR Use the relation: [A, Bn]= nBn-1[𝐴, 𝐵]

1. Evaluate the commutation value of [𝑥, 𝐻], where 𝐻 is the Hamiltonian

operator.
𝑝𝑥2
Soln: We know, 𝐻 = + 𝑉(𝑥), where 𝑉(𝑥) =potential energy
2𝑚
𝑝2 𝑝2
[𝑥, 𝐻 ] = [𝑥, + 𝑉] = [𝑥, ] +[𝑥, 𝑉] Note: 𝑝 = 𝑝x
2𝑚 2𝑚
1
= [𝑥, 𝑝2] + 0. The second term [𝑥, 𝑉] = 0, because both are functions of
2𝑚
position only. Note:[𝑥, 𝑥] = 0 relation is used.
1 1
[𝑥, 𝐻 ] = [𝑥, (𝑝, 𝑝)] = {[𝑥, 𝑝]𝑝 + 𝑝[𝑥, 𝑝]}.
2𝑚 2𝑚

We have[𝑥, 𝑝𝑥] = 𝑖ℏ
1 1
[𝑥, 𝐻 ] = { (𝑖ℏ)𝑝 + 𝑝(𝑖ℏ)} = {𝑖ℏ𝑝x + 𝑖ℏ𝑝x}
2𝑚 2𝑚
𝑖ℏ𝑝x
[𝑥, 𝐻] = .
𝑚

OR Use the relation: [A, Bn]= nBn-1[𝐴, 𝐵]

2. Evaluate the relation [𝑥, [𝑥, 𝐻 ]], where 𝐻 is the Hamiltonian.

 𝑝𝑥2
Soln: We know, 𝐻 = + 𝑉 (𝑥).
2𝑚

First let us evaluate

𝑝2 𝑝2
[𝑥, 𝐻 ] = [𝑥, + 𝑉] = [𝑥, ] +[𝑥, 𝑉] Note: 𝑝 = 𝑝x
2𝑚 2𝑚
1
= [𝑥, 𝑝2] + 0. The second term [𝑥, 𝑉(𝑥)] = 0, because both are functions of
2𝑚
position only. Note:[𝑥, 𝑥] = 0 relation is used.
1 1
[𝑥, 𝐻 ] = [𝑥, (𝑝, 𝑝)] = {[𝑥, 𝑝]𝑝 + 𝑝[𝑥, 𝑝]}.
2𝑚 2𝑚

We have[𝑥, 𝑝x] = 𝑖ℏ
1 1
[𝑥, 𝐻 ] = { (𝑖ℏ)𝑝 + 𝑝(𝑖ℏ)} = {𝑖ℏ𝑝x + 𝑖ℏ𝑝x}
2𝑚 2𝑚
𝑖ℏ𝑝𝑥
[𝑥, 𝐻] =
𝑚

𝑖ℏ𝑝x 𝑖ℏ 𝑖ℏ
∴ [𝑥, [𝑥, 𝐻 ]] = [𝑥, ] = [𝑥, 𝑝x] = (𝑖ℏ)
𝑚 𝑚 𝑚
−ℏ2
[𝑥, [𝑥, 𝐻 ]] =
𝑚
𝑝𝑥2 1
3. If, 𝑘 = , V = 𝑚𝜔2𝑥2 and 𝐻 = 𝑘 + 𝑉, find the value of [𝐻, 𝑘], where
2𝑚 2

𝑥 & 𝑝 are operators along the same axis. Given [x,px] = 𝑖ℏ

𝑝2 𝑝2 𝑝2 𝑝2 𝑝2
Soln: [𝐻, 𝑘] = [ + 𝑉, ]= [ , ]+[𝑉, ] Note: Here 𝑝 = 𝑝x
2𝑚 2𝑚 2𝑚 2𝑚 2𝑚

1 1 𝑝2
[𝐻, 𝑘] = [𝑝2, 𝑝2] + [ 𝑚𝜔2𝑥2, ]
4𝑚 2 2𝑚
1 1
= 0 + 𝑚𝜔2 [𝑥2, 𝑝2]
2 2𝑚

Note: Identity [ 𝑝𝑖 , 𝑝𝑖 ] = 0 is used.

1 1 𝜔2
= 𝑚𝜔2 [𝑥2, 𝑝2] = [𝑥𝑥, 𝑝2]
2 2𝑚 4
𝜔2
= {𝑥 [𝑥, 𝑝2] + [𝑥, 𝑝2]𝑥}.
4

We have relation, [𝐴, 𝐵𝑛 ] = 𝑛𝐵n-1[𝐴, 𝐵].

∴ [𝑥, 𝑝2] = 2𝑝[𝑥, 𝑝] = 2𝑝(𝑖ℏ). This is because, given [𝑥, 𝑝x] = 𝑖ℏ
𝜔2
[𝐻, 𝑘] = {𝑥 (2𝑖ℏ𝑝) + (2𝑖ℏ𝑝)𝑥}
4
𝑖ℏ𝜔2
[𝐻, 𝑘] = {𝑥𝑝x + 𝑝x𝑥}
2
Angular momentum: It is defined as

𝐿⃗ = (𝑟 × 𝑝)
It can be expressed as
𝑖 𝑗 𝑘
𝐿⃗ = | 𝑥 𝑦 𝑧|
𝑝𝑥 𝑝𝑦 𝑝𝑧
= 𝑖(𝑦𝑝𝑧 − 𝑧𝑝y) − 𝑗(𝑥𝑝𝑧 − 𝑧𝑝x) + 𝑘(𝑥𝑝y − 𝑦𝑝x)
= 𝑖(𝑦𝑝𝑧 − 𝑧𝑝y) + 𝑗(𝑧𝑝𝑥 − 𝑥𝑝z) + 𝑘(𝑥𝑝y − 𝑦𝑝x)
= 𝑖𝐿x + 𝑗𝐿y + 𝑘𝐿 𝑧
where 𝐿𝑥, 𝐿y & 𝐿𝑧 are the components of angular momentum along the respective
axis.
Components of angular momentum:

1. 𝐿𝑥 = (𝑦𝑝z − 𝑧𝑝y)

2. 𝐿𝑦 = (𝑧𝑝x − 𝑥𝑝z)

3. 𝐿𝑧 = (𝑥𝑝𝑦 − 𝑦𝑝x)

1. Evaluate the commutations of [𝑥, 𝐿x] , where 𝐿𝑥 is the x-component of angular

momentum.
Soln: We have 𝐿𝑥 = 𝑦𝑝𝑧 − 𝑧𝑝y , where 𝑝 is the linear momentum.
[𝑥, 𝐿x] = [𝑥, 𝑦𝑝z − 𝑧𝑝y] = {[𝑥, 𝑦]𝑝𝑧 + 𝑦[𝑥, 𝑝z]} − {[𝑥, 𝑧]𝑝𝑦 + 𝑧[𝑥, 𝑝y]}
Using the relations, [𝑥𝑖, 𝑝i] = 𝑖ℏ & [𝑥𝑖, 𝑝j] = 0
We know, [𝑥, 𝑦] = 0 & [𝑥, 𝑝z] = 0.
[𝑥, 𝐿x] = {0 + 0} ∴ [𝑥, 𝐿x] = 0
2. Evaluate the commutations of [𝑥, 𝐿y].
Soln: We have 𝐿𝑦 = 𝑧𝑝𝑥 −𝑥𝑝z
[𝑥, 𝐿y] = [𝑥, 𝑧𝑝x − 𝑥𝑝z] = {[𝑥, 𝑧]𝑝𝑥 + 𝑧[𝑥, 𝑝x]} − {[𝑥, 𝑥]𝑝𝑧 + 𝑥 [𝑥, 𝑝z]}
Using the relations, [𝑥𝑖, 𝑝i] = 𝑖ℏ & [𝑥𝑖, 𝑝j] = 0
[𝑥, 𝐿𝑦 ] = {0 + 𝑧(𝑖ℏ)} − {0 + 0} ∴ [𝑥, 𝐿𝑦 ] = 𝑖ℏ𝑧.

Note: 1. If we change the order, we get [𝐿𝑥, 𝑥] = −𝑖ℏ𝑧

Similarly, 2. [𝑥, 𝐿z] = 𝑖ℏ𝑦, [𝑦, 𝐿z] = 𝑖ℏ𝑥 & [𝑧, 𝐿x] = 𝑖ℏ𝑦 etc..
 𝜕 𝜕2
1. Evaluate [𝑥, ] and [𝑥, ]
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 2
𝜕
2. If 𝜓 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑥, find the eigen value of the operator, 𝐴̂ = and
𝜕𝑥

𝜕2
𝐴̂ =
𝜕𝑥 2

Infinite potential well

Consider a particle freely moving in an infinite potential well along x-axis. Infinite potential
well can be represented by
V(𝑥)=0 for 0< 𝑥 < 𝐿
V(𝑥)= ∞ 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥 ≤ 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 ≥ 𝐿
Where 𝐿 is the width of the box.
Schrodinger’s time independent equation for the particle within the box is given is
𝑑2 Ψ(x) 2𝑚
+ (𝐸 − 𝑉) Ψ(x) =0 (1)
𝑑𝑥 2 ћ2

Where m=mass of the particle

E=total energy of the particle
V=potential energy of the particle
For a free particle within the box V=0. Now Eqn (1) becomes
𝑑2 Ψ(x) 2𝑚
+ 𝐸 Ψ(x) =0
𝑑𝑥 2 ћ2

𝑑2 Ψ(x)
+𝑘2Ψ(x) =0 (2)
𝑑𝑥 2
2𝑚
Where 𝑘2 = 𝐸 (3)
ћ2

Equation (2) is a second order differential equation. It has the solution of the form
𝛹(𝑥) = 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑥 + 𝐵𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑘𝑥 (4)
Where A and B are constants. They can be evaluated using the following boundary
conditions. Note 𝑘 appearing here is not the propagation constant.
We know, the wavefunction Ѱ must be zero at 𝑥 = 0 & 𝑥 = 𝐿. This is because potential at
these points are infinite. Therefore, we have the conditions,
1. Ψ(x) =0 at x=0. Eqn(4) gives
0=𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛0 + 𝐵𝑐𝑜𝑠0 and 0 = 0 + 𝐵 × 1 ∴𝐵=0
Now eqn(4) becomes
Ψ(𝑥) = 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑥 (5)
2. Again Ψ(x) =0 at x=L.
Eqn(5) gives, 0= 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑘𝐿.
Since 𝐴 ≠ 0, then 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑘𝐿 =0
𝑛𝜋
This condition gives, 𝑘𝐿 = 𝑛𝜋. ∴ 𝑘= .
𝐿

𝒏𝟐 𝝅𝟐
On squaring, 𝑘2 = .
𝑳𝟐

Substituting for k2 from eqn(3), we get

2𝑚 𝒏𝟐 𝝅𝟐
𝐸 =
ћ2 𝑳𝟐

ћ2 𝒏𝟐 𝝅𝟐
𝐸𝑛 = 2𝑚 .
𝑳𝟐
ℎ
Putting ћ = 2𝜋 , we get

𝒏𝟐 𝒉𝟐
En= (6)
8𝑚𝑳𝟐

This relation is called eigen energy relation.

𝒉𝟐
For n=1, E1= 8𝑚𝑳𝟐

𝟒 𝒉𝟐
For n=2, E2= 8𝑚𝑳𝟐

𝟗 𝒉𝟐
For n=3, E3= 8𝑚𝑳𝟐

𝟏𝟔 𝒉𝟐
For n=4, E4= 8𝑚𝑳𝟐 …….etc,

Generalizing, 𝐸𝑛 = 𝑛2 𝐸1
The energy values E1, E2, E3 & E4….etc, are called eigen values of energy. We can note that
En∝n2 . Hence energy levels are not equally spaced. It increases as n2.
Energy levels for a particle in an infinite potential well

Energy levels are not equally spaced.

It increases as
En ∝ 𝑛 2
Eigen function: From eqn(5), we have the wave function
𝑛𝜋𝑥
𝛹(𝑥) = 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑥 = 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛( ) (7), where 𝐴 is a constant.
𝐿

The value of 𝐴 can be evaluated using Born’s normalization condition

+∞ +∞
∫−∞ |Ψ(x)|2 dx= ∫−∞ 𝛹 ∗ 𝛹 𝑑𝑥 = 1

For the potential well, the limits are 𝑥 = 0 𝑡𝑜 𝑥 = 𝐿. Hence, we can write
𝐿 𝑛𝜋𝑥
∫0 |A sin ( )|2 𝑑𝑥 =1
𝐿
𝐿 𝑛𝜋𝑥 1−𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃
∫0 𝐴2sin2( 𝐿
) 𝑑𝑥 = 1. Using 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃 = 2
𝐿 1−𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃 𝑛𝜋𝑥
A2 ∫0 𝑑𝑥 = 1 , where 𝜃=
2 𝐿
A2 𝐿 𝐿
[∫0 𝑑𝑥 − ∫0 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃 ] = 1
2

A2 2
[L − 0] = 1 ∴ 𝐴 = √
2 𝐿

Now equation (7) becomes

2 𝑛𝜋𝑥
𝛹(𝑥) = √𝐿 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( ) (8)
𝐿

Eqn(8) is called eigen function. This function is a sinusoidal function.

Representation of Ψ & |Ψ|2 for a particle in an infinite potential well
Particle in a three-dimensional potential well:

Schrodinger’s time independent equation in 1-dimension case is

𝑑2 Ψ(x) 2𝑚
+ (𝐸 − 𝑉) Ψ(x) =0
𝑑𝑥 2 ћ2

𝒏𝟐 𝒉𝟐
En= 8𝑚𝑳𝟐

2 𝑛𝜋𝑥
𝛹 (𝑥) = √ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( )
𝐿 𝐿

In 3- dimensional case,
2𝑚
𝛻𝟐 Ψ(x) + (𝐸 − 𝑉) Ψ(x) = 0
ћ2

ℎ2 𝑛𝑥 2 𝑛𝑦 2 𝑛𝑧 2
𝐸( 𝑛𝑥 𝑛𝑦 𝑛𝑧 ) = ( 2 + 2 + )
8𝑚 𝐿𝑥 𝐿𝑦 𝐿𝑧 2

where 𝑛𝑥 , 𝑛𝑦 & 𝑛𝑧 are respective quantum numbers.

2 𝑛𝑥 𝜋𝑥 2 𝑛𝑦 𝜋𝑦 2 𝑛𝑧 𝜋𝑧
Eigen function, 𝛹 ( 𝑛𝑥 𝑛𝑦 𝑛𝑧 ) = √ sin ( )√ sin ( ) √ sin ( )
𝐿𝑥 𝐿𝑥 𝐿𝑦 𝐿𝑦 𝑧 𝑧

8 𝑛𝑥 𝜋𝑥 𝑛𝑦 𝜋𝑦 𝑛𝑧 𝜋𝑧
𝛹 ( 𝑛𝑥 𝑛𝑦 𝑛𝑧 ) = √ sin ( ) sin ( ) sin ( )
𝐿𝑥 𝐿𝑦𝐿𝑧 𝐿𝑥 𝐿𝑦 𝐿𝑧

For a cubical box, 𝐿𝑥 = 𝐿𝑦 = 𝐿𝑧 = 𝐿

ℎ2
𝐸( 𝑛𝑥 𝑛𝑦 𝑛𝑧 ) = ( 𝑛𝑥 2 + 𝑛𝑦 2 + 𝑛𝑧 2 ), where 𝑛2 = ( 𝑛𝑥 2 + 𝑛𝑦 2 +𝑛𝑧 2 )
8𝑚𝐿2
 8 𝑛𝑥 𝜋𝑥 𝑛𝑦 𝜋𝑦 𝑛𝑧 𝜋𝑧
𝛹 ( 𝑛𝑥 𝑛𝑦 𝑛𝑧 ) = √ sin ( ) sin ( ) sin ( )
𝑉 𝐿 𝐿 𝐿

where 𝑉 = 𝐿3 = Volume of the cubical box.

𝑛𝜋 𝑛ℎ
Momentum of the particle, 𝑝 = ћ𝑘 = ћ = ,
𝐿 2𝐿

The ground state corresponds to quantum numbers, 𝑛𝑥 = 1, 𝑛𝑦 = 1 & 𝑛𝑧 = 1.

The ground state energy in a cubical box becomes,

ℎ2 ℎ2
𝐸 (111) = ( )
2 1+1+1 = 3 .
8𝑚𝐿 8𝑚𝐿2

There is only one set of quantum numbers for the ground state and no additional
splitting. Such non splitting energy states are called non-degenerate states. The
degeneracy of such states is 1.
If any one of the quantum numbers is different, then it goes to first excited state.
There are 3 possibilities for 𝑛𝑥 𝑛𝑦 & 𝑛𝑧 . They are (211), (121), & (112). Equation (2)
gives the value for
ℎ2 ℎ2 ℎ2 ℎ2
𝐸 (211) = (4 + 1 + 1) = 6 𝐸(121) = (1 + 4 + 1) = 6
8𝑚𝐿2 8𝑚𝐿2 8𝑚𝐿2 8𝑚𝐿2
ℎ2 ℎ2
𝐸 (112) = ( )
2 1+1+4 = 6 .
8𝑚𝐿 8𝑚𝐿2

The first excited state has got 3 splitting but energy remains the same. Hence its
degeneracy is 3.
Note that the eigen functions are different for these 3 states. Degeneracy can occur
in any 3D box.
Note: (nxnynz) integers must be taken such that n2 must increase with order of
energy levels.
The property of splitting of states of a particle with different quantum numbers and
eigen functions but with the same energy and momentum is called ‘degeneracy of
states’.
Probability current density and equation of continuity:
The probability of finding a quantum system described by the wave function 𝛹 (𝑥, 𝑡)
∗
in a finite region in space is given by ∫ Ѱ Ѱ 𝑑𝑥 which changes as the wavefunction
evolves with time.
The time dependent Schrodinger equation and its complex conjugates are
ћ2 𝜕2 Ψ 𝜕Ψ
− +𝑉Ψ=𝑖ћ --------------(1)
2𝑚 𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑡

ћ2 𝜕2 Ψ* 𝜕Ψ*
− + 𝑉 Ψ* = −𝑖 ћ ----------------(2)
2𝑚 𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑡

Multiplying equation (1) by Ψ* and equation (2) by Ψ from left

 ћ2 𝜕2 Ψ 𝜕Ψ
− Ψ* + Ψ*𝑉 Ψ = 𝑖 ћ Ψ* ----------------(3)
2𝑚 𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑡

ћ2 𝜕2 Ψ* 𝜕Ψ*
− Ψ + Ψ𝑉 Ψ* =- 𝑖 ћ Ψ -------------(4)
2𝑚 𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑡

Equation (3) –(4)

ћ2 𝜕2 Ψ 𝜕2 Ψ* 𝜕Ψ 𝜕Ψ*
− [Ψ* −Ψ ] = 𝑖 ћ [Ψ* +Ψ ]
2𝑚 𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡
𝑖ћ 𝜕 𝜕Ψ 𝜕Ψ* 𝜕(Ψ*Ψ)
− [Ψ* −Ψ ]=
2𝑚 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑡

𝑖ћ 𝜕Ψ 𝜕Ψ*
If P = Ψ*Ψ and [Ψ* −Ψ ] =S
2𝑚 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥

𝝏𝑺 𝝏𝑷
Then - = this equation is similar to that of the continuity equation of
𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒕
continuity for fluids in hydrodynamics or charge in electrodynamics. Hence S is
which is called as probability current density.
Extending to the three dimensions
𝝏𝑷
= −𝛁. 𝐒
𝝏𝒕
Integration the equation over a volume and using Gauss theorem

𝜕𝑃
∫ 𝑑𝑣 = − ∫ (∇. S)dv = ∮ 𝑆. 𝑑𝑠
𝜕𝑡 𝑣 𝑠

𝜕𝑃
∫ 𝑑𝑣 + ∮ 𝑆. 𝑑𝑠 = 0
𝜕𝑡 𝑠

The result implies that any decrease or increase in probability within a particular
region results in an outflow or in flow of probability across its surface. That is any
increase in probability within a region would decrease in probability outside that
region by an equal amount. The equation thus expresses the conservation of
probability density and is known as quantum mechanical probability conservation
equation.

Linear harmonic oscillator:

Consider a particle executing simple harmonic oscillation along x-axis. From Hooke’s
law, the restoring force acting on the particle is directly proportional to the
displacement of the particle.
𝐹 ∝ −𝑥
𝐹 = −𝑘𝑥 (1)
where 𝑘 is the force constant.
Potential energy of the particle becomes
𝑥 𝑥 1
V= − ∫0 𝐹𝑑𝑥 = + ∫0 𝑘𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑘𝑥 2 (2)
2

We know, 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎 (3)
Substituting eqn. (3) in eqn(1) , we can write
𝑚𝑎 = −𝑘𝑥
𝑑2 x 𝑑2 x 𝑘
𝑚 2 = − 𝑘𝑥 ∴ 2 + 𝑥=0 (4)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑚

𝑑2 x
We have an equation for the SHM as 𝑑𝑡 2
+𝜔2 𝑥 = 0, (5)

Comparing eqn(3) & (4), we get

𝑘
= 𝜔2 . ∴ 𝑘 = 𝑚𝜔2 & 𝜔 = 2𝜋𝜈 (6)
𝑚

Note: In the case of a conservative force,

𝑑𝑉
𝐹 = −𝛻𝑉 𝑜𝑟 −
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑉
In the force field, 𝐹 = −
𝑑𝑥

Schrodinger’s wave eqn. for one dimension is

𝑑2 Ψ(x) 2𝑚
+ (𝐸 − 𝑉) Ψ(x) =0
𝑑𝑥 2 ћ2

Substituting for ‘V’ from eqn(2),

𝑑2 Ψ(x) 2𝑚 1
𝑑𝑥 2
+ (𝐸 − 𝑘𝑥 2 ) Ψ(x) = 0. (7)
ћ2 2

Substituting for ‘𝑘’ from eqn(6), we get

𝑑2 Ψ(x) 2𝑚 1
𝑑𝑥 2
+ (𝐸 − 𝑚𝜔 2𝑥 2 ) Ψ(x) = 0.
ћ2 2

𝑑2 Ψ(x) 2𝑚 𝑚2 𝜔2 x2
𝑑𝑥 2
+( 𝐸− ) Ψ(x) = 0.
ћ2 ћ2
2𝑚 𝑚𝜔
Let 𝐸 = ∝ and =𝛽
ћ2 ћ
𝑑2 Ψ(x)
𝑑𝑥 2
+(∝ − 𝛽2𝑥 2 ) Ψ(x) = 0 (8)
𝑑𝑦
Let 𝑦 = √𝛽 𝑥 ∴ 𝑥2=y2/β & = √𝛽
𝑑𝑥

Let us find out,

𝑑Ψ(x) 𝑑Ψ(x) 𝑑𝑦 𝑑Ψ(x)
= = √𝛽
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦

𝑑 𝑑Ψ(x) 𝑑 𝑑Ψ(x) 𝑑 𝑑Ψ(x)

( ) = ( √𝛽 ) = 𝑑𝑦( √𝛽 )
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥

𝑑2 Ψ(x) 𝑑 𝑑Ψ(x) 𝑑2 Ψ(x)

𝑑𝑥 2
= ( √𝛽 √𝛽) = 𝛽 𝑑𝑦 2
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦

Eqn(6) becomes
𝑑2 Ψ(x) 𝑦2
𝛽 + (𝛼 − 𝛽2 )Ψ=0
𝑑𝑦2 𝛽

𝑑2 Ψ(x) 𝛼
𝑑𝑦 2
+ ( − 𝑦2) Ψ = 0 (7)
𝛽

Where Ψ= Ψ(𝑦), a function of ‘𝑦’ only.

Eqn(7) can be solved by series method (Frobenius method) using Hermite
polynomial. This method gives the solution
𝛼
=(2n+1), where n = 0,1,2,3,4,……….etc.
𝛽

Substituting for 𝛼 & 𝛽, we get

𝐸 n= (2𝑛 + 1)ћ𝜔 or 𝐸𝑛 = (2𝑛 + 1) ℎ𝜈 (8)
where 𝜔 = 2𝜋ν & ν =frequency of the oscillator.
1 ℎ𝜈
𝐸 n= (𝑛 + )ℎ𝜈 or 𝐸𝑛 = (2𝑛 + 1) (9)
2 2

𝐸𝑛 represents eigen values of energy of the oscillator. Eqn (9) shows that, energy
levels are equally spaced as 𝐸𝑛 ∝ 𝑛. It shows that, energy levels are equally spaced.
1
For 𝑛 = 0, 𝐸0 ≠ 0. But 𝐸 0= ℎ𝜈 and this energy is called zero-point energy. This is
2
the lowest possible energy that an oscillator can have. We can also write, eigen
energy as
𝐸𝑛 = (2𝑛 + 1) 𝐸0 (10)
Further one can note that, the energy difference between the adjacent levels,
𝐸 n= 𝐸𝑛+1 − 𝐸𝑛 = ℎ𝜈 = 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛.
Thus, the existence of zero-point energy doesn’t violate the Planck’s quantum
hypothesis.
 STEP POTENTIAL
Consider a beam of particles moving along x-axis incident on a step potential. A step
potential can be defined as
𝑉(𝑥) = 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥 < 0
= 𝑉0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥 > 0

Note: Step potential is a potential barrier having infinite width.

Let the beam of particles encounter a step potential having height 𝑉0 at 𝑥 = 0.
Let 𝐸 be the kinetic energy of the particles.
Case 1: Let 𝐸 > 𝑉0
The Schrodinger’s equation in 1D case is given by
𝑑2 Ψ(x) 2𝑚
+ (𝐸 − 𝑉) Ψ(x) =0 --------- (1) where, 𝛹 = 𝛹 (𝑥)𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦.
𝑑𝑥 2 ћ2

In region I : Potential energy of the particle is zero (𝑉 = 0).

𝑑2 𝛹1 2𝑚𝐸
+ 𝛹 1= 0, for the region 𝑥 < 0.
𝑑𝑥 2 ℏ2

𝑑2 𝛹1 2𝑚𝐸
+ 𝛼2𝛹 1= 0 ------------(2) where, 𝛼 2=
𝑑𝑥 2 ℏ2
Equation (2) has got the solution of the form
𝛹 1= 𝐴 𝑒 𝑖𝛼𝑥 + 𝐵𝑒 −𝑖𝛼𝑥 ------------(3)
1st part 𝐴𝑒 𝑖𝛼𝑥 represents the incident wave on the step potential &
2nd part 𝐵𝑒 −𝑖𝛼𝑥 represents the reflected wave from the step potential.
In region II: Potential energy of the particle will be 𝑉 = 𝑉0 .
𝑑2 𝛹2 2𝑚
+ (E-V0)𝛹 2= 0
𝑑𝑥 2 ℏ2

𝑑2 𝛹2 2𝑚
+ 𝛽2𝛹 2= 0 (4) where, 𝛽2= (𝐸 − 𝑉0 )
𝑑𝑥 2 ℏ2

This equation has got the solution of the form,

𝛹 2= 𝐶𝑒 𝑖𝛽𝑥 + 𝐷𝑒 −𝑖𝛽𝑥 (5)
The 2nd part represents the reflected wave in the region II. Since there is no
discontinuity or potential barrier in the II region, there should not be a reflected
wave. Hence 2nd part must be discarded. Now the admissible wave function (5),
becomes
𝛹 2= 𝐶𝑒 𝑖𝛽𝑥 (6)
𝐴, 𝐵 & C are constants.
[They can be evaluated using boundary conditions of wave functions. At 𝑥 = 0, the
following conditions must be satisfied.
𝑑𝛹1 𝑑𝛹2
(𝑖) 𝛹1= 𝛹2 & (𝑖𝑖) = ]
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Reflection coefficient is defined as

𝑅𝑒𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥
𝑅= , at the potential barrier.
𝐼𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥

𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑏𝑎𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑚 |𝐵|2

𝑅= =
𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑏𝑎𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑚 |𝐴|2
(∝−𝛽)2 [√𝐸−√𝐸−𝑉0 ]2
𝑅 = (∝+𝛽)|2 OR 𝑅 = (7)
[√𝐸+√𝐸−𝑉0 ]2

Transmission coefficent is defined as

𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥
𝑇= , at the potential barrier.
𝐼𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥

𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑏𝑎𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑚 𝛽|𝐶|2

𝑇= =
𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑏𝑎𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑚 𝛼|𝐴|2
4𝛼𝛽 4√𝐸 √𝐸−𝑉0
𝑇 = (∝+𝛽)|2 OR 𝑇= (8)
[√𝐸+√𝐸−𝑉0 ]2
Further we can note that, 𝑅 + 𝑇 = 1
Representation of the wave forms at the step barrier:

Case 2: Let 𝐸 < 𝑉0

For the 1st region (𝑥 < 0), 𝑉 = 0
Shrodinger’s eqn(2) and its solution eqn(3) holds good.
𝛹 1= 𝐴 𝑒 𝑖𝛼𝑥 + 𝐵𝑒 −𝑖𝛼𝑥
For the 2nd region, 𝑉 = 𝑉 0 and 𝑉0> 𝐸. The Schrodinger’s eqn(1) becomes,
𝑑2 Ψ2 2𝑚
𝑑𝑥 2
− ћ2
(V0-E)𝛹 2= 0 for 𝑥 > 0.

𝑑2 Ψ2 2𝑚
2 − 𝛾 2𝛹 2= 0 (9), where, 𝛾 2 = ( 𝑉0 −𝐸 )
𝑑𝑥 ℏ2

It has got the solution of the form

𝛹 2= 𝐶𝑒 𝛾𝑥 + 𝐷𝑒 −𝛾𝑥 (10) where 𝐶 & 𝐷 are constants.
We have the condition for a wave function, 𝛹 → 0 as 𝑥 → ∞.
Since 𝑒 𝛾𝑥 → ∞ as 𝑥 → ∞, 1st part must be discarded. Hence the admissible wave
function becomes,
𝛹 2= 𝐷𝑒 −𝛾𝑥 , (11)
with 𝐷 ≠ 0
[The constants must be evaluated using boundary conditions,
𝑑2 Ψ1 𝑑2 Ψ2
(𝑖) 𝛹1= 𝛹2 & (𝑖𝑖) 2 = , at the boundary, 𝑥 = 0. ]
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥2
It can be shown that the reflection coefficient is 1 and transmission coefficient =0.
Since there is no absorption of the wave in region II for the reflection coefficient to
be equal 1 the reflection 100% is not possible at the boundary. In fact the wave
penetrates in to region II and is continually reflected till the incident energy is
turned back into region I. Because of this the amplitude of the wave penetrating into
region II falls off exponentially.
IMPORTANT RESULT:
In the 2nd region, the transmitted wave function is given by eqn(11) as,
𝛹2 = 𝐷𝑒 −𝛾𝑥 , with 𝐷 ≠ 0, for 𝐸 < 𝑉0 case.
This wave function is not a sinusoidal wave function like eqn (5). It is an
exponentially decaying function. This is the ‘fundamental quantum mechanical
characteristics’ even though 𝐸 < 𝑉0. It means that, there is a small but finite and
definite probability, for the particles to penetrate into the potential barrier, even its
energy 𝐸 < 𝑉0. This quantum mechanical property is called ‘barrier penetration’ or
‘tunnel effect’. This is a very remarkable quantum mechanical effect. Classically,
barrier penetration is completely forbidden.

Barrier penetration depth:

The penetration distance or depth is defined as the distance within the barrier in
which the wave function 𝛹2 reduces to 1/e times of its value 𝛹2 at the barrier
(𝑥 = 0). It is given by,
1` ℏ
𝑥= =
𝛾 √2𝑚(𝑉0−𝐸)

Potential Barrier:
Consider a beam of particles having kinetic energy 𝐸 is incident on a potential
barrier. Let 𝑉0 be the barrier height and 𝐸 < 𝑉0.
Potential barrier can be defined as
𝑉(𝑥) = 0 for 𝑥 < 0 and 𝑥 > 𝐿
 = 𝑉0 for 0 < 𝑥 < L,
where ‘𝑎′ is the width of the potential barrier.

𝐴𝑒 𝑖𝛼𝑥 𝐷𝑒 −𝛽𝑥
𝐹𝑒 𝑖𝛼𝑥

𝑉=0 𝑉0 𝑉=0
𝑥=0 𝐿 𝑥

The phenomenon of penetration or tunnelling through a barrier whose height

exceeds the total energy of the particle is known as barrier penetration or quantum
mechanical tunnelling.
Applications:
1. 𝛼 −decay 2. Field emission of electrons from cold metallic surfaces.
3. Reverse breakdown of semiconductor devices.
4. Switching action of tunnel diodes. 5. Electrical breakdown of insulators.
6. Working of thin film optical fibres.
7. Josephson effect in superconductors-switching of signals from one circuit to
another in time 10-12 seconds, extremely useful in high speed computers.
Tunnel diode: Heavily doped p & n regions(≈1024 m-3) and depletion region is very
small(≈ 10-8 m). For small variation of forward bias, there is sudden and large
variation in the current. This is possible only by tunnelling of electrons through the
junction at very low forward bias voltage. This is QM tunnel effect. The greatest
advantage of tunnel diode is its very fast/quick response to voltage change.