THEME: MODERN PHYSICS

CHAPTER 7: QUANTUM PHYSICS

Standard content Learning standards

7.1 Quantum Theory of Light 1. Explain the initiation of the quantum theory

2. Describe quantum of energy

3. Explain wave-particle duality

4. Explain concept of photon

5. Solve problems using :

(i) photon energy, E=hf

(ii) power, P=nhf ; n is number of photon emitted per second.

7.2 Photoelectric Effect 1. Explain photoelectric effect

2. Identify four characteristics of photoelectric effect that cannot be

explained using wave theory

7.3 Einstein’s Photoelectric 1. State minimum work function needed by a metal to emit an

Theory
electron using Einstein’s equation

2. Explain threshold frequency, fo and work function, W

3. Determine work function of metal, W=hfo

4. Solve problems involving Einstein’s equation for photoelectric

effect.

5. Explain production of photoelectric current in a photocell circuit

6. Describe applications of photoelectric effect

 CHAPTER 7 (FORM 5) : QUANTUM PHYSICS
LESSON 7.1 –
QUANTUM THEORY OF LIGHT
1.1 Explain the background of triggering
quantum theory ideas
1.1.1 Intoduction
Quantum physics involves physics on a very
small scale, where size is often associated with
the size of atoms and sub-atoms such as protons
and neutrons of photons etc.
Quantum physics was first developed in the
early 1900s where classical physics failed to
explain some phenomena at the atomic level.
. negative electrons orbit around the nucleus.
1.1.2 The background of the development of
quantum theory from classical theory which
encompasses the discoveries of the following
physicists
Isaac Newton
The three Newton's laws of motion in classical
physics can be applied to large and medium
bodies only.
In the 20th century Newton’s law were
replaced by quantum mechanics and relativity
as the most fundamental laws of physics.
Nevertheless, Newton’s laws continue to give
an accurate account of nature, except for very
small bodies such as electrons or for bodies
moving close to the speed of light.
. Jeans suggests that the energy emitted by black
Thomas Young
In classical physics, the results of Young’s
double-slit experiment shows that light is a
wave because it shows the phenomena of
diffraction and interference, while the particles
do not experience both of these phenomena.
But in physics, quantum, as a result of
photoelectric effects experiments it is found that
light is particle in nature.
John Dalton
All matter is made up of tiny particles called
atoms. Atoms cannot be created or destroyed.
Atoms of the same element are similar, different
elements have atoms.
Atoms are the smallest particles and cannot
divided again.
1
J.J. Thomsom
An atom is a positively charged sphere that is
uniformly distributed onwhole atoms while
electrons are uniformly dispersed in them.
This model is known as 'Plum pudding' Model’
He discovered electrons as a result of cathode
ray tube experiments.
Earnest Rutherford
An atom is made up of a very small, positively
charged nucleus at the center of the atom, while
This model was presented by him as a result of
the experiment of scattering alpha particles on
gold foil performed by his assistants Hans
Geiger and Ernest Marsden.
Niels Bohr
Neil Bohr modified the Rutherford atomic
model. He suggested that every electron in an
atom has a fixed amount of energy. This energy
stores electrons that move around the nucleus in
a certain range called the energy level
Niels Bohr succeeded in constructing atomic
theory based on quantum ideas.
Max Planck
The classic theory of black bodies by Rayleigh-
bodies is continuous.
But then Max Planck introduced the idea of a
quartz (concrete packet) that could explain the
part of the radiation intensity graph against the
wavelength of a black body that could not be
explained by classical theory.
Max Planck suggested that the radiation emitted
was in discrete amounts.
Albert Einstein
Einstein developed Planck's theory with states
that light exists in the form of a quanta known as
a photon.
Albert Einstein, one of the scientists who took
Planck's idea seriously, proposed quantum light
(photons) that behave like particles. Other
Einstein theories explain the similarity of mass
and energy,, the principle of wave-particles
duality and the theory of relativity
 Louis de Broglie
De Broglie introduced the hypothesis that
particles can also show wave properties.
Einstein and De Broglie's ideas led to the idea of
the nature of wave-particle duality properties.
1.1.3 Black body
Black bodies are the ideal absorbers and
radiators of electromagnetic radiation (including
light and heat).
high wavelength (low frequency).
electromagnetic radiation is not continuous but is
discrete in the form of quantum or energy
packets, E = nhf, where f is the frequency, h is
the planck constant and n = 1,2 , 3,… .in
quantum form.
This means that for each temperature, the black
body has the maximum radiation intensity
which is the peak of the graph.
On the left side of the peak the energy packages
are larger because of the short wavelength
(higher frequency) while on the right side the
peak of the energy packages is smaller due to the

At any temperature the black body is easier to

radiate energy in smaller packages compared to
a large energy package. That is why it is found
that the area under the curve on the right side of
the peak is greater than the area under the curve
A good example to explain the concept of a on the right side of the peak because the area
black body is when a ray of light enters a hollow under the curve represents the amount of energy
radiated.
body through a fine hole reflected several times
.
without being able to re-emerge from the hollow
body.
The energy emitted by the black body is called
the black body radiation.

The comparison of classical theory and quantum

theory on black body radiation is as follows:

According to Planck again, as the temperature

increases the probability of emitting radiation at
higher frequencies (large energy quantities)
increases. That is why the graph peak towards
shorter wavelengths (higher frequencies) with
increasing temperature.

Summary of comparisons between classical

According to classical theory, the greater the theory and quantum theory
frequency (the lower the wavelength) the greater
the intensity of the radiation until it reaches the
value of infinity known as ‘ultraviolet disaster’
But through real experiments, the shape of the
graph is very different.

In 1900, German physicists solved the problem

of 'ultra violet' by suggesting that

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 1.2 State the meaning of quantum energy.
As the temperature of an object rises, the object acts
as a black body radiator and emits thermal radiation
of all wavelengths.
Figure 7.2 shows a graph of radiation intensity
against wavelengths of three types of black bodies at
different temperatures.
Usually, every curved graph of the black body
spectrum is narrower on its left, which is an area
with short wavelengths and high frequencies.
With increasing temperatures, the wavelength
approaching maximum radiation intensity will also
get shorter.
Figure below shows examples of black bodies in
daily life.
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1.2.1 Compare the concepts of continuous
energy and discrete energy, using the visible
light spectrum (continuous energy) and the
line spectrum of mercury lamps (discrete
energy)
Visible light spectrum from white light
When white light is radiated into a prism it
produces a continuous spectrum of visible light
with various colors (wavelength or frequency)
that sometimes overlap between colors without
a separation gap. This shows that the energy
released by the light is continuous.
Line spectrum of hot mercury vapour lamp
But when observe at the spectrum produced by
mercury lamp, it is found that the spectrum of
lines is formed where there is a large separation
gap between the lines. The lines are for colors
(wavelength or specific frequency only)
indicating the energy emitted by the radiation is
discrete (quantum).
The line spectrum produced by an excited atom
is a series of coloured lines with unique
wavelengths and frequencies. Each element
produces a spectrum with a series of its own
distinctive lines. Therefore, the line spectrum can
be used to identify the presence of an element.
Table below shows the frequency and quantum
of energy values of the line spectrum produced
by a mercury vapour lamp.
Frequency and energy quantum values of a line
spectrum from a mercury vapour lamp
1.2.2 The meaning of quantum energy
Quantum of energy is discrete energy packet and
not a continuous energy. The energy depends on
the frequency of the waves.
According to Max Planck and Albert Einstein's
quantum theory, light energy exists in the form of an
energy packet known as a photon.
Photons are light energies transferred in quantum of
energy. The photon energy is directly proportional to
the frequency of light waves. The higher the
frequency of light waves, the higher the energy
quantum of a photon
Based on the light line spectrum of mercury lamp,
then;
Quantum means the quantity of energy that discrete
directly proportional to the frequency radiated.
Ef
Hence E = hf,
where
h is the Planck constant. h = 6.63 x 10 -34J s
1.3 Explain the properties of wave-particle
duality properties
1.3.1 Hipotesis de Broglie
The wave-particle duality properties is a
phenomenon when under certain conditions,
particles exhibit wave properties and under
other conditions waves exhibit particle
properties.
According to De Broglie Hypothesis:
De Broglie's hypothesis says that all materials
have particle and wave properties
The wave-particle properties are given by the de
Broglie equation:
h
Momentum , p 
 magnetic lens to produce magnification .
Where:
p = momentum (particle property)
λ = wavelength (wave property)
h = Planck constant
4
But momentum . p = mv
Therefore , mv = h/λ
h

mv
Where :
λ = de Broglie wavelenth
h = Planck constant
m = mass of particle
v = velocity of particle
Example 1
Calculate the wavelength of de Broglie for a
bullet of mass 0.025 kg moving at velocity 320
m s-1.
Solution
1.3.2 Application of wave properties of an
electron (particle) - Electron microscope
One of the application of the wave properties of
an electron with reference to the wavelength in
Broglie is the electron microscope.
A problem that arises for a light microscope
when at high resolution. When observed objects
are about the wavelength of light, for example
looking at chromosomes in a single cell nucleus,
a significant diffraction effect is seen. As a
solution an electron microscope is used.
In this microscope the electron beams are
accelerated at high speed by a high voltage
(electrons are particles). the electron grooves
with de Broglie wavelength shorter than the
wavelength of light. (electrons are waves).
Then, the electron grooves will be refracted and
focused by the electromagnetic coil acts as a
(electrons are particles again). The image is
formed in the form of a photograph called as
electron microscopy or as an image on a TV
screen.
The de Broglie wavelength of an electron beam is
approximately 1000 – 10 000 times shorter
compared to the wavelength of light. This property
is very important for higher magnification of
electron microscope. A comparison between the
images produced by an optical microscope and an
electron microscope is shown in figure below.
1.4 Explain the concept of photons
Photons are the basic particles in light and other
electromagnetic rays. These particles have a zero
resting mass.
Thus, photons move in a vacuum at the speed of
light.Photons have particle-wave duality properties.
When it is a wave it can show wave phenomena
such as reflection, refraction, diffraction and
interference.

While the particle is its ability to interact with matter

through energy transfer. Therefore photons are
considered as quantities (discrete energy packages)
of light.

This is inferred through the Planck equation as

follow Energy for one photon, E = hf
c
But c = fλ or f 


hc
Therefore E 


1.5 Solve problems for energy and power

of photon

Nhc
Enegry of photon E =Nhf = 

Where ,

E = Energy of photon
N = Number of photon
h = Planck constant
λ = Wavelength of light
c = Velocity of light

E Nhf nhc
Power of photon , P    nhf 
t t 
Where,

P = Power of photon
n = Number of photon per second
h = Planck constant
λ = Wavelength of light
Example 2 c = Velocity of light
Calculate the wavelength of de Broglie for one
electron moving at a velocity of 2.0 x 10 6 m s-1

Solution

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LESSON 2 –
PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT
2.1 Explain the photoelectric effect

2.1.1 Introduction

In chapter 5 (Electronics chapter) you have

learned about the process of termionic emission
in which when a certain metal is heated the
electrons are released through its surface.
The equivalent process is the photoelectric Figure 2.1 Apparatus to show photoelectric effect
effect caused by radiation emitted to the metal
surface but not caused by heat as occurs in the
process of termion emission.

2.1.2 Meaning of photoelectric effect.

The photoelectric effect is the release of

electrons from the metal surface when irradiated
with electromagnetic radiation.
Electrons emitted from the metal are known as
photoelectrons

When a metal surface is illuminated by a beam of

light at a certain frequency, electrons can be
emitted from the metal. This phenomenon is
known as photoelectric effect.

2.1.3 Demonstration to show the

photoelectric effect

The characteristics of photoelectric effect can be

studied by arranging a photocell in the circuit as
shown in Figure 2.1

8
When a piece of negatively charged zinc plate is
placed on a negatively charged electroscopic metal
disc it is found that the deflection size of the gold
leaf increased.
When the ultraviolet radiation are directed to thezinc
plate it is found that deflection size of the gold leaf
decreased.
This is because when ultraviolet rays hit the zinc
surface, electrons escape out of the zinc surface
and the number of negative charges on the zinc
plate decreases.
The release of electrons from the zinc surface when
exposed to ultraviolet light is known as the
photoelectric effect.
2.1.4 Experiment to show photoelectric effect
Aim
To show the photoelectric effects
List of apparatus and materials
Photo cell, battery, rheostat, galvanometer,
voltmeter, connecting wire and monochromatic
light source.
Arrangement of apparatus
Procedure
Arrange the circuit as shown.
The monochromtic light source is directed to the
photo cell cathode.
Adjust the rheostat so that the voltmeter reading
change up and observe the galvanometer
pointer.
Observation
At a certain voltage value it is observed that the
galvanometer pointer shows a deflection.
9
Discussion
When monochromtaic light is applied to the
cathode of a photo cell at a certain
voltage,electrons are released from the cathode
towards the anode producing a current causing
the galvanometer indicator to deflect and this
process is called photoelectric effect.
The resulting electrons are named as
photoelectrons and the resulting current are
called photoelectric current. For electrons to
escape , the voltage across photocell must exceed
the stopping voltage, Vs.
**Formulae such as E = hf and λ = h/p , involve
Planck's constant, h. How can the value of this
constant, h be determined in the laboratory?
2.1.5 Experiment to determine the value of
Planck constant, h
Aim
To determine the value of the planck constant, h
List of apparatus and material
LED various colors of light, voltmeter,
galvanometer, battery, rheostat and connecting
wires.
Arrangement of apparatus
Procedure
Arrange the circuit as shown in the diagram
Adjust the rheostat until the LED starts to light
up and the galvanometer starts to deflect.
Record the voltmeter reading, = V
Refer to website to determine the value of the
light color frequency emitted from the LED, = f
Repeat the experiment using LED of different
colours.
Plot graph V against f
Data 2.2 The Characteristics of the Photoelectric
Effect

Photoelectric effect occurs when light strikes the

surface of a metal. The electrons in the metal absorb
energy from the light and escape from the metal
surface.

According to classical theory, light in wave form is a

spectrum with continuous energy and photoelectric
Calculation effect should be able to occur at any light wave
frequency.

eV  h f Bright light which has high energy should be able to

h emit electrons quickly. Dim light has low energy so
V f
e the electrons need a longer time to absorb enough
h energy to escape from the metal surface.
Gradient of graph 
e
h  (e ) X ( gradient of graph) However, the results of the photoelectric effect
experiments show that the emission of
photoelectrons only apply to light waves with
frequencies that exceed a certain value without being
The activation voltage, Va can be obtained through
affected by the intensity of the light. Photoelectrons
V-intercept from the graph of I against V as shown
are also emitted instantaneously at those light
in Figure 2.2.The activation voltage, Va has a linear
frequencies even at low light intensities.
relationship with 1/λ as shown in Figure 2.3.

Gradient of a graph of Va against 1/λ, m is equal to

the value of hc/e. Therefore, the value of Planck's
constant can be determined as me/c

Figure 2.2

***The threshold frequency, f0

is the minimum frequency required to
produce photoelectric effect on a metal

Figure 2.3

10
 .4. Photoelectrons emit instantaneous when
emitted with light.
But according to classical wave theory, electrons
take time to absorb enough energy to release them
from the metal surface. Therefore, there will be time
elapsed before the photoelectron is emitted

EXERCISES : LESSON 7.2

1 The photoelectric effect is the release of

electrons from the metal surface when irradiated
with

A heat radiation
B alpha radiation
C beta ray radiation
D electromagnetic radiation.
Identify four features of photoelectric effects
2 In photo electric effect, emission of electrons is
that cannot be explained using wave theory. due to

Some features of photoelectric effects fail to be A electromagnetic radiation

explained by classical wave theory: B radioactive radiation
C magnetic field
1. The photoelectron radiation rate does not D electric field
depend on the frequency of light but depends on
3 What aspect of wave- particle duality is shown
the intensity of the light beam. by the photoelectric effect?
When the photoelectron radiation rate increases,
then the photoelectric current increases. But A Light is made up of particles
according to classical wave theory, increasing the B Particles made up of light
frequency of light (at a fixed amplitude) will C Particles can behave like waves
increase the photoelectron radiation rate D Waves can behave like particles

4 Which of the following shows particle nature of

2. Existence of threshold frequency. light?
Threshold frequency is the minimum frequency light
required to release photoelectrons from metal A Photoelectric effect
surfaces. The frequency of the threshold depends on B Interference
the type of metal emitted by the light. C Diffraction
D Refraction
But according to classical wave theory, light energy
is continuously absorbed by free electrons in metals. 5 What is the name of the constant h in the
When enough energy has been absorbed, the equation E = h f?
electrons will free themselves from the metal.
Therefore the frequency of light does not require a A De Broglie’s constant
B Eintein’s constant
certain minimum value
C Planck’s constant
D Bohr’s constant
3. The maximum kinetic energy of electrons
released depends on the frequency of light and is
independent of the intensity of light
But according to classical wave theory the higher the
intensity of light the more the kinetic energy of the
released electrons is used

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LESSON 3 – EINSTEIN’S
PHOTOELECTRIC THEORY
3.1 State the minimum work function required
by a metal to radiate electrons through the
Einstein’s equation.
In 1905, Albert Einstein introduced a photoelectric
theory that successfully explained all the
characteristics of photoelectric effect in related
experiments. He was awarded the Nobel Prize in
1921 for this achievement. This theory is named
Einstein’s Photoelectric Theory.
Einstein applied Max Planck’s idea of energy
quantum. He suggested that energy is carried by
light particles called photons. The energy of each
photon is directly proportional to the frequency of
light, f and can be determined by the following
equation.
Each quantum of light is a discrete packet of energy.
There are many energy packets in a beam of light
that shines on the metal surface. When a photon
arrives at a metal surface, the photon energy will be
fully absorbed by an electron in the metal.
This energy is used to release the electron from the
metal and the extra energy will become the kinetic
energy of the photoelectron. Usually, the electrons
on a metal surface will acquire maximum kinetic
energy compared to the electrons inside the metal.
13
Diagram above shows the graph the kinetic energy
of photoelectron against the light frequency.is
plotted
Based on the principle of conservation of energy,
Light energy (photons) = Energy used by electrons
to escape from metal surfaces + Kinetic energy of
photoelectron
1
hf  W  mv 2
2
1
mv 2  hf - W
2
This equation is known as the Einstein’s equation,
where W is known as a work function.
This equation corresponds to the graph above.
x-intercept = threshold frequency fo
y-intercept = - (work function, W)
Gradient of graph = Planck constant, h
3.2 Threshold frequency, fo and work
function,W for Photoelectric effect.
The minimum energy required for a photoelectron to
be emitted from a metal surface is known as work
function. The minimum frequency for a light photon
to produce photoelectric effect is called threshold
frequency.
Figure 3.1
The relationship between the maximum kinetic 3.3. Determine the work function of metal
energy of photoelectrons, Kmax and the light based on the formula, W = hfo
frequency, f is shown by the graph in Figure 3.1.
The graph is a straight line with a positive gradient Based on the quantum energy principle;
and not passing through the origin. The threshold
E = hf
frequency, f0 is the value of the intercept on the
Emin = hfmin
frequency axis.
W = hfo
Example 1
The relationship between work function and
threshold frequency of a metal can be determined by The threshold frequency for zinc metal is
the relationship W = hf0 . Photoelectrons will
1.038 x 1015 Hz. Calculate the work function of zinc
acquire kinetic energy when light frequency exceeds
metal.
threshold frequency. The higher the threshold
frequency of a metal, the higher the work function. Solution
This means the minimum energy required for
photoelectric effect to occur is higher. Different
metals have different threshold frequencies as shown
in Figure 3.2.

3.4 Solve problems involving Einstein’s

equation for photoelectric effect

Example 2

The work function of a metal is 5.81 x 10-19 J.

Figure 3.2
Figure 3.3 shows the graph the kinetic energy of
photoelectron against the light frequency of three
different metals. Based on the graph above, the
threshold frequency f0 and the working function, W
depends on the type of metal.
Ultraviolet radiation with a frequency of 1 x 10 15 Hz
is directed to the surface of the metal.
Calculate
(a) The threshold frequency of the metal
(b) The maximum kinetic energy of the
photoelectron released from the metal surface
Solution

Figure 3.3

14
Example 3
Diagram shows a graph of the kinetic energy of a
photonectron against the frequency of an
electromagnetic radiation resulting from a
photoelectric effect experiment.
Based on the graph determine
(a) threshold frequency
(b) work function of metal released
photoelectron
(c) Planck constant
(d) the maximum kinetic energy of a photoelectron
released by an electromagnetic radiation
has a frequency of 5 x1014 Hz.
Solution
15
3.5 Generating Photoelectric Current in a
Photocell Circuit
Figure 3.4 shows a photocell circuit consisting of a
glass vacuum tube. The semi-cylindrical cathode is
coated with a light-sensitive metal and connected to
the negative potential.
The anode is a metal rod fixed at the axis of the
semi-cylindrical cathode and connected to the
positive potential. When the photocell is illuminated
by light, the production of photoelectric current is
produced in the circuit.
Figure 3.4 : A photocell circuit
Two examples of common photocells. Table below
shows the production of photoelectric current by
photocells coated with caesium and lithium.
On the whole, the higher the work function, the
shorter the maximum wavelength required to
produce photoelectric current. As the light intensity
increases, the photoelectric current in the photocell
circuit also increases.
 Solar cells (or photovoltaics) convert solar
energy into electrical energy. Whether solar
cells are used in calculators or satellites, solar
cells depends on sunlight to produce the next
photoelectric effect

Solar cells contain p-type and n-type

semiconductors, which are joined together and
p-n junctions are formed between the two
semiconductor materials.

LED lamps along the road which are powered by

solar cells are energy efficient and
environmentally friendly. In daylight, the
photoelectric effect of solar cells enables
electrical energy to be stored in the battery. At
night, the LED lamps will light up with the
power from the battery.
3.6 Describe the application of photoelectric
effect
3.6.2 Automatic light detector on the door
3.6.1 Solar cell

When there are no objects near the door, the

transmitter produces a radiation and is exposed
to the photo cell and a photoelectric effect
occurs and the motor works to close the door.
On the other hand, if an object near the door
radiation is exposed to the object and is not
exposed to the photo cell and the motor
functions to open the door.

Light detectors at the automatic doors use

infrared beam and photocells as switches. When
the light path is disturbed, photoelectric current
in the photocell circuit will be disconnected and
the door will remain open.

3.6.3 Image sensor

An image detector is an electronic device that

converts optical images into electronic signals.
Image detectors are used in digital cameras and
imaging devices to convert the light received on
the camera or lens of the imaging device into

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digital images. The digital signals are in the 3.6.5 Other uses
form of small picture elements called pixels.
- Photocopier
- Photo diode / photo transistor
- Light alarm
- Lux meter (meter to mesaure the intensity of
light)

EXERCISES : LESSON 7.3

1 Photoelectric effect is based on the principle of

conservation of

A mass B energy
3.6.4 Solar panels on ISS spacecraft
C momentum D mass - energy

2 The Einstein’s photoelectric equation in the

word equation is

A Energy used by electron to escape from

metal surface = Light energy + Kinetic
energy of photoelectron
B Kinetic energy of photoelectron = Kinetic
energy of photoelectron + Light energy
C Light energy = Energy used by electron to
escape from metal surface + Kinetic energy
of photoelectron

The electric power supply system used by ISS 3 Einstein’s photoelectric equation is
spacecraft is using solar panels whose total area 1
A hf  hf o  mv 2 max
is estimated to be more than half the area of the 2
football field. There are four rows of solar 1
B hf o  hf  mv 2
max
panels and each solar panel contains tens of 2
thousands of solar cells. 1
C hf  mv 2max
2
Thus the working principle of solar panels is 1
D hf  hf o  mv 2
max
similar to solar cells (photovoltaics) converting 2
solar energy into electrical energy that uses
photoelectric effect when sunlight strikes 4 A radiation of frequency f is irradiated on a
silicon solar cells (semiconductor material) surface of metal caused the emiting of electron
which release photoelectrons and even holes. with the maximum kinetic energy K.
[ The planck’s constant = h ]
The solar panel strip is automatically adjusted
The threshold frequency , fo of the metal is
to always face the sunlight. When the panel
strip is shielded from the shadow of an ISS or A f o  K  hf B f  hf  K
o
spacecraft, a ‘power bank’ system is used.
K  hf hf  K
The ISS has 16 wings of solar panels and each C fo  D fo 
h h
wing which measures 35 m × 12 m has 33
thousand solar cells. These panels are capable of
generating 84 – 120 kW of electricity

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