Chapter 7 : Quantum Physics

 HISTORY OF MODERN PHYSICS

1. Physics is the foundation of science and technology. All of today's technological

devices such as computers, car engines, smartphones, the internet, satellites,
space rockets, all exist because of physics.
2. The very broad field of physics not only involves natural phenomena but even
the fields of biology and chemistry are also explained in physics. For example,
the process of photosynthesis, blood pressure and heart rate.
3. Physics can be divided into 2 eras namely classical physics and modern physics.
Classical physics involves natural phenomena such as light, sound, heat, force,
and electromagnetic waves. This we have learned in previous topics.
4. At first physicists were very convinced that classical physics was enough to
explain all the questions of natural phenomena.
5. Until the end of the 19th century, physicists were shocked by some problems that
could not be explained by classical physics such as photoelectric effects and
black body radiation.
6. This has triggered the birth of modern physics which is quantum physics as one of
its fields and we will learn in this chapter.
 WHAT IS QUANTUM PHYSICS?

1. Quantum physics, also known as quantum mechanics, quantum theory or wave

mechanics.
2. Quantum physics is a theory of physics that discusses matter at the atomic or
subatomic level.
3. Quantum physics is a major branch of modern physics.
4. Since classical physics could not be used to describe the properties of atoms
(small and fine particles), quantum physics was introduced and was able to
provide accurate calculations of the physical properties of atoms and
molecules.
5. Quantum physics was triggered when scientists discovered some problems that
could not be solved by classical physics including black body radiation and
photoelectric effects.
7.1 QUANTUM THEORY OF LIGHT

 INTRODUCTION OF LIGHT

1. While in Form 4, we have studied the 7 spectra of electromagnetic waves.

2. Visible light consisting of seven different colors is one of the electromagnetic
wave spectrum.
3. These seven colors of visible light have different frequencies and
wavelengths.

Diagram 7.1 Electromagnetic waves spectrum

 BLACKBODY RADIATION

1. A black body is an idealised body that able to absorb all electromagnetic

radiation (including light and heat) that falls on it.
2. Referring to Diagram 7.2, a white light consisting of 7 spectrum of rainbow
light was emitted on 2 objects, A and B.
3. The observer finds that object A looks orange while object B is black.
4. This is because object A absorbs all seven light spectrum and reflects only
orange light into the observer’s eye.
5. While object B absorbs all the seven lights that fall on it. Hence the object B is
said to be a black body.

Diagram 7.2 Black body radiation

6. However, black bodies can also emit thermal radiation depending on their
temperature. The electromagnetic radiation emitted by a black body is
known as black body radiation.
7. Diagram 7.3 shows the radiation of sunlight at different temperatures.
 Diagram 7.3 Solar radiation according to the increase in temperature from
6 × 103 oC to 10 × 106 oC

8. Diagram 7.4 shows a graph of intensity of radiation against wavelength for

four types of black bodies at different temperatures.
9. Classical theory explains that light acts as a wave with continuous energy. So,
it cannot explain the shape of the graph in Diagram 7.4 for high radiation
frequencies and shorter wavelengths such as ultraviolet radiation.

Diagram 7.4 Graph of radiation intensity against wavelength

 IDEAS THAT SPARKED THE QUANTUM PHYSICS THEORY

1. Light is an electromagnetic wave that is produced from the vibration of an

electric charge.
2. In a hot object, electrons vibrate rapidly and randomly in any direction and
produce light.
3. As the object become hotter, the vibrations of the electrons become more
energetic, and the more light is emitted.
4. The electrons in a hot object will vibrate with a continuous frequency range.
5. According to classical theory, electrons vibrating at the same frequency
should have the same energy content. The vibration frequency of the
electron also has no limit, so the light energy resulting from vibration becomes
infinite.
6. However, the results of experiments involving black body radiation have
shown contradictions with classical theory. Refer to Diagram 7.4.
7. It is this contradiction that has given rise to the theory of quantum physics.
 HISTORY OF DEVELOPMENT OF QUANTUM THEORY

Classical Theory
Isaac Newton (1643 - 1727)
The particle nature of light
 Described light as single stream of particles or
corpuscles in 1704.
 Unsuccessful in explaining the phenomenon of light
refraction due to failure in comparing the speed of light
in glass and air.

Thomas Young (1773 - 1829)

Double-slit experiment
 Conduct double-slit experiment on light in 1801 and
showed that light is a wave.
 Unable to explain the radiation spectrum produced by
black body.

John Dalton (1766 - 1844)

Dalton Atomic Model
 Matter consists of basic particles that cannot be further
divide called atoms.
 Same elements have the same type of atoms.
 Unable to explain the light spectrum produced by
atoms.

J.J Thomson (1856 - 1940)

Discover of electron
 Discovered negatively charged subatomic particles
called electron
 Quantum Theory
Max Plank
(1643 - 1727)
 Introduced the concept of quantum (discrete energy) in
1900.
 The electromagnetic wave emitted by a black body is in
discrete form known as quantum of energy.
 The energy in each quantum is directly proportional to
the wave frequency.
 The intensity of the radiation is low for the high frequency
waves.
 Introduced;
E = hf
Elbert Einstein
(1879 - 1955)
 Developed Plank’s theory by stating that light exists in
the form of quantities known as photons.
 From the equation E = hf, Einstein correlated the kinetic
energy of the emitted photoelectron directly
proportional to the frequency of the light wave.
 Einstein's photon theory succeeded in explaining the
characteristics of the photoelectric effect that could not
be explained by classical theory.
Neils Bohr
(1885 - 1962)
 Describe the production of line spectra by hydrogen
atoms.
 The electrons in an atom move around the nucleus of
the atom on certain shells only.
 Photons are emitted when electrons move from a high
energy level shell to a low energy level shell.
 Louis de Broglie
(1892 - 1987)
 Introduce the hypothesis that particles can also exhibit
wave properties.
 The ideas of Einstein and de Broglie led to the idea of the
wave-particle duality of light and all subatomic
particles.

 PLANK’S QUANTUM THEORY

1. In 1900, in order to obtain a graph shape corresponding to the experimental

results as shown in Diagram 7.4, Plank introduced the idea of a quanta
(discrete energy packet) which could explain parts of a graph that could not
be explained by classical theory.
2. Thus, a quantum of light or photon is likened to a ball that has its own energy
that depends on the frequency of the wave, f.
3. Postulates of Plank’s Quantum Theory as follows:
i. Matter radiates energy and absorbs energy in discrete quantities
discontinuously in the form of small packets or bundles.
ii. The smallest packet is known as quantum. In the case of light is known
as photon.
iii. The energy of the quantum absorbed or emitted is directly proportional
to the frequency of the radiation.
iv. A body of matter can radiate energy or absorb energy in whole
number multiples of a quantum as E = nhf, where n is a positive integer.
 4. Photon energy is directly proportional to the frequency of waves.
𝐸 ∝𝑓

Therefore,
𝐸 = ℎ𝑓

Where, E = photon energy

h = Plank’s constant, 6.63 × 10-34 J s
f = frequency of light waves

5. From the above relationship, the higher the frequency of light waves, the
higher the energy of a photon.

Example 1:
A photon has a frequency, f of 7.25 × 105 Hz. Calculate its energy.
[Plank’s constant, h = 6.63 × 10-34 J s]

Solution;
𝐸 = ℎ𝑓
𝐸 = (6.63 × 10−34 )(7.25 × 105 ) = 4.8 × 10−28 𝐽

Example 2:
Find the energy of a 540 nm photon.
[Plank’s constant, h = 6.63 × 10-34 J s, speed of light, c = 3.0 × 108 ms-1]

Solution;
𝑐
Speed, 𝑐 = 𝑓𝜆, then 𝑓 =
𝜆

ℎ𝑐 (6.63 × 10−34 )(3.0 × 108 )

𝐸= = = 3.68 × 10−19 𝐽
𝜆 540 × 10−9
  Concepts of Continuous Spectrum and Line Spectrum Theory
1. The electromagnetic spectrum can consist of a continuous spectrum and a
line spectrum.
2. A continuous spectrum can be produced by the scattering of white light by a
prism into a spectrum consisting of seven colours of visible light.
3. The visible light spectrum is said to be continuous because there is no
separation gap between each type of colour in the spectrum.
4. The line spectrum produced by an excited atom is a collection of colored
lines with unique wavelengths and frequencies. Each element produces its
own series of line spectrum. Therefore, the line spectrum can be used as an
indicator to identify the existence of an element.

Continuous spectrum

Hot bulb

(a)

Line spectrum

Heated
hydrogen gas

(b)

Diagram 7.5 Scattering of light by a prism for a continuous spectrum and a line
spectrum.
 Classical Theory / Continuous Plank Theory / Discrete

Examples of discrete situations; raindrops in

Examples of continuous situations; water
the form of packets
that flows continuously

The ball going down the slope releases The ball going down the stairs releases
energy in a continuous form. energy in a discrete form.
The energy of an electromagnetic The energy of an electromagnetic beam
radiation depends on the intensity of the depends on the frequency of the light
radiation. quantity.

Table 7.1 Comparison of continuous energy from classical theory and discrete
energy from quantum theory
 WAVE PARTICLE DUALITY

1. In 1905, Einstein extended Plank's theory by stating that light exists in the form
of quanta known as photons.
2. A photon is defined as a particle with zero mass consisting of a quantum
electromagnetic beam in which is concentrated its energy.
3. This theory restores Newton's theory of light as particles.
4. In 1923, De Broglie introduced the hypothesis that particles also have wave
behaviours.
5. Thus, the idea of Einstein and de Broglie led to wave-particle duality for
particles and this idea was later applied to subatomic particles.
6. The properties of waves that describe most of the phenomena of light.

Phenomenon Light as a wave Light as particle

Reflection √ √

Refraction √ √

Interference √ x

Difffraction √ x

Photoelectric effect x √

Table 7.2 The properties of light as waves and particles

7. In 1924, de Broglie proposed that any particle having momentum would

have a wavelength, λ which has been connected in the equation;
ℎ
𝜆=
𝑝
Where, λ = de Broglie wavelength
h = Plank’s constant
p = momentum of particle
8. Since the value of the momentum of particle can be determine by p = mv, the
following formula can also be obtained.

ℎ
𝜆=
𝑚𝑣
Where, m = mass of the particle
v = velocity of particle

 APPLICATION OF ELECTRON WAVE PROPERTIES IN ELECTRON MICROSCOPE

1. One use of the wave property of matter is found in an electron microscope.

2. There are two basically two types of electron microscope:
i. Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM)
ii. Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM)
3. In a TEM, electrons are transmitted through the specimen.
4. In SEM, electrons are scanned over the surface of the specimen.
Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM) Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM)

Table 7.3 Comparison between Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM) and

Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM)

5. Electron microscopes are very useful as they are able to magnify objects to a
much higher resolution than optical microscopes.
6. Higher resolution can be achieved with electron microscopes because the
de Broglie wavelength for electrons is so much smaller than that of visible
light.
 Optical Microscope Electron Microscope

Source of Use visible light Use electron beam

radiation
Optical
arrangement
Example of
image
formation

Image of plant cell under an Image of plant cell under an

optical microscope electron microscope
Type of lens Glass Magnet
Image Light reflection from the Electrons are scattered back from
formation specimen site the specimen
mechanism
Skrin Eye (retina) Computer screen
memfokus
Table 7.4 Comparison between Optical Microscope and Electron Microscope
Diagram 7.6 Comparison between Optical Microscope, Transmission Electron
Microscope (TEM) and Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM)
 CONCEPT OF PHOTON

1. Photons are a concept introduced by Einstein based on Plank's quantum

theory. According to Einstein, photons are quanta of light that are packets of
electromagnetic radiation energy.
2. Photons are moving at constant speed in a vacuum state.

Diagram 7.7 Visualise of a photon

3. Photons have some basic properties that help determine what photons are
and how they behave.

Stable

Interacts with
matter and
Zero
electrone mass

Properties of
photon
Travels in speed No
of light in electric
vacuum
charge

Can be destroyed Carries energy

or created and momentum

Diagram 7.8 Properties of photon

Based on Plank's theory, energy is a quantum and can be formulated as;
E = hf
where h is the Plank’s constant.
Since,
𝑐
𝑓=
𝜆
Therefore,
ℎ𝑐
𝐸=
𝜆
The power of an electromagnetic radiation can be determined using a
formula;
𝑛ℎ𝑐
𝑃 = 𝑛ℎ𝑓 =
𝜆
Where n = the number of photons emitted in a second.
  Solving Problems Involving Photon Energy and Power

Example 1:
Calculate the frequency and energy of yellow light that has a wavelength 580 nm.
[Plank’s constant, h = 6.63 × 10-34 J s, speed of light, c = 3.0 × 108 ms-1]

Solution;
𝑐 3.0 × 108
𝑓= = = 5.14 × 1014 𝐻𝑧
𝜆 580 × 10−9

𝐸 = ℎ𝑓 = (6.63 × 10−34 )(5.14 × 1014 ) = 3.43 × 10−19 𝐽

Example 2:
A laser emits light of wavelength 400 nm in a beam of power 1.5 mW. Calculate the
number of photons emitted by the laser each second.

Solution:
𝑐 3.0 × 108
𝑓= = = 7.5 × 1014 𝐻𝑧
𝜆 400 𝑛
𝑃 = 𝑛ℎ𝑓
𝑃 1.5 𝑚
𝑛= = −34 14
= 3.0 × 1015 photon
ℎ𝑓 (6.63 × 10 )(7.5 × 10 )
7.2 PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT

1. When a beam of light illuminated on a metal surface, electrons can be

emitted from the metal. This phenomenon is known as photoelectric effect.

Diagram 7.9 Photoelectric effect

2. This phenomenon is also often referring to as photoemission or photoelectric

emission, and the electrons that are emitted from the metal are called
photoelectrons.
3. In term of their behaviours and properties, photoelectrons are no different
from other electrons.
4. The photoelectric effect depends on three wave characteristics which is;
i. Light intensity
ii. Frequency of light
iii. Wavelength
 The photoelectric effect depends on The photoelectric effect depends on
the intensity the frequency / wavelength
Light with a low frequency has a high
wavelength.

Light with low frequencies (high

Light rays emit electrons. wavelengths) cannot emit electrons.

The more light the more electrons emit Light with high frequency (small

electrons with the same kinetic energy. wavelength) can emit electrons.

5. The photoelectric effect was first observed by German physicist Heinrich Hertz
in 1887, Herts noticed that when a certain frequency of light was shone on a
metal, the metal would sometimes exhibit a spark.
6. The characteristics of photoelectric effect can be studied by arranging a
photocell in the circuit as shown in Diagram 7.10 below.
 Diagram 7.10 Apparatus setup to study photoelectric effect

EXPERIMENT TO DETERMINE THE VALUE OF PLANK’S CONSTANT

Aim To determine the value of Plank’s constant
Procedure 1. The apparatus is set up as shown in diagram.
2. The rheostat value is adjusted till the LED starts glowing.
3. Corresponding voltage across the LED measure using a
voltmeter, which is the activation voltage.
4. The procedure repeated by changing the LEDs and the
corresponding activation voltage is recorded.

Result The activation voltage, Va can be measured for LEDs with different
values of λ (wavelength of light) using the formula:
ℎ𝑐 1
𝑉𝑎 = ( )
𝑒 𝜆

Analysis of
data

Graph of against V
 𝟏
𝑮𝒓𝒂𝒑𝒉 𝒐𝒇 𝑽𝒂 𝒂𝒈𝒂𝒊𝒏𝒔𝒕
𝝀
Conclusion 1
The activation voltage, 𝑉𝑎 has a linear relationship with .
𝜆
Discussion 1. The activation voltage, Va can be obtained through V-
intercept from the graph of I against V.
1 ℎ𝑐
2. Gradient of the graph of 𝑉𝑎 against ,𝑚 =
𝜆 𝑒
𝑚𝑒
3. The value of Plank’s constant can be determined as ℎ =
𝑐
 CHARACTERISTICS OF THE PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT

1. The photoelectric effect cannot be explained by considering light as a wave.

Only the particle nature of light is suitable for this phenomenon.
2. Einstein introduced the particle theory of light where he explained that light is
a particle called a photon.
3. The photoelectric effect has four important characteristics that cannot be
explained by classical wave theory. The characteristics are;
i. The higher the frequency of the photon of light, the higher the kinetic
energy of the electrons emitted from the metal surface.
ii. The minimum frequency of the light needed for a metal to emit electrons
is known as the threshold frequency, f0 for that metal.
iii. The kinetic energy of photoelectrons does not depend in the light intensity
of light. An increase in the light intensity does not produce photoelectrons
with higher kinetic energy.
iv. Photoelectron are emitted instantly when a metal surface is illuminated by
light.

 Effect of frequency on the photoelectric effect

1. The energy carried by each photon depend on the frequency as F = hf.
2. When a photon of sufficient energy is incident on a metal surface, the
electrons on the metal surface absorbs the energy and emitted out of the
surface. The rest of the energy is converted to the kinetic energy of the
electron.
3. The kinetic energy of the emitted electrons is given by K = F – hf0 where f0 is
threshold frequency.
4. Maximum kinetic energy of the emitted electrons depends on the frequency
of the photon incident on the surface.
5. The higher the frequency, the higher the kinetic energy of the emitted
electrons.
 6. Table 7.5 shows the velocity of electrons emitted by the three light of different
wavelength.

Potassium: requires 2.0 eV to eject an electron

(The higher the wavelength of light, the lower the frequency of the light)

Red light has low
frequency.
No electron is emitted.
Green light has higher Blue light has higher
frequency than red light. frequency than green
Electron is emitted. light. Electron is emitted
with greater energy than
the one emitted by the
green light.

Table 7.5Photoelectric effect for different types of light and frequency

 Existence of threshold frequency, f0
1. The threshold frequency, f0 of a metal refers to the minimum frequency
required to produce photoelectric effect on surface metal.
2. The photoelectric effect can only occur above the threshold frequency. Light
below the threshold frequency of a metal will not emit an electron out of the
metal surface.
3. Different metals have different values of threshold frequency. This is because
the attractive forces that bind the electrons to the metal are different for
different metals.

Red light Green light Blue light

The frequency of red The frequency of green The frequency of green
light is lower than the light is higher than the light is higher than the
threshold frequency of threshold frequency of threshold frequency of
the metal. the metal. the metal.
No photoelectric effect Photoelectric effect Photoelectric effect
occurs. occurs. occurs.
No electron is emitted. Electrons are emitted. Electrons are emitted
with higher kinetic
energy than the ones
emitted by the green
light.
Table 7.6 Photoelectric effect for different types of threshold frequency
  Kinetic energy of an electron does not depend on light intensity
1. From the classical theory of the photoelectric effect, it shows the number of
emitted electrons would depend on the frequency, and their kinetic energy
should depend on the light intensity.
2. However, there was an observation that shows an opposite behaviour in the
photoelectric effect.
3. The light intensity affects the number of electrons emitted. The kinetic energy
of the emitted electrons depends on the frequency of light.

When intensity of light is 4% there is a When the intensity of the light

few numbers of electrons emitted. increase to 91 %, more electrons are
emitted.
Table 7.7 Effect of intensity of the light on the number of electrons emitted

4. An increase in the light intensity does not produce emitted electrons with a
higher kinetic energy.
5. If we draw current against potential difference graph as shown in
Diagram 7.11 below, the stopping potential constant even the intensity of the
light is change.
6. Therefore, the kinetic energy of an emitted electron does not depend on the
light intensity.
 Diagram 7.11 Graph of current against potential difference

 Electron is emitted instantly when the metal surface is illuminated by a light

1. When a light strikes a metal surface, electrons are emitted almost
instantaneously even at very low light intensity.
2. The characteristics differs from the emission of electrons from a metal surface
by thermionic emission, in which the electrons may take some time to gain
energy and escape from the metal surface.
Thermionic emission Photoelectric effect

The emission of electron from a metal The emission of electrons from a metal
surface by thermionic emission may surface by photoelectric effect is
take some time. instantaneous.
Table 7.8 Comparison between thermionic emission and photoelectric effect
7.3 EINSTEIN’S PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT THEORY

1. Einstein used Plank’s revolutionary idea where light is a particle in

photoelectric effects.
2. The energy carried by each particle of light (photon) is dependent on the
frequency of light as shown:

𝐸 = ℎ𝑓

where h is the Plank’s constant.

3. Since light is a discrete packet of energy, there are packets of energy in a
stream of light that illuminate the metal surface..
4. The energy is used in two conditions:
i. To remove the electron from the metal atom.
ii. To emit the electron as kinetic energy.
5. When a photon falls on the surface of a metal, all the energy of the photon
will be completely absorbed by the electrons in the metal.
6. This absorbed energy will be used to release electrons from the metal surface
and the rest is converted into electron kinetic energy.
7. Electrons on the surface of the metal obtain maximum kinetic energy
compared to electrons in the metal.

𝐸 = 𝑊 + 𝐾𝑚𝑎𝑥
ℎ𝑓 = 𝑊 + 𝐾𝑚𝑎𝑥
1
ℎ𝑓 = 𝑊 + 𝑚𝑣 2
2
1
𝑚𝑣 2 𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ℎ𝑓 − 𝑊
2
8. At the threshold frequency, f0, photoelectrons are emitted without any kinetic
energy,
1
𝑚𝑣 2 𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 0
2
Hence, 0 = hf0 – W
W= hf0
Substitute W = hf0 into
1
𝑚𝑣 2 𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ℎ𝑓 − 𝑊
2
1
𝑚𝑣 2 𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ℎ𝑓 − ℎ𝑓0
2
1
𝑚𝑣 2 𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ℎ(𝑓 − 𝑓0 )
2

 THRESHOLD FREQUENCY, f0 AND WORK FUNCTION, W

1. The minimum energy required by an electron to exit a metal surface is known

as the work function, W.
2. The relationship between the maximum kinetic energy of a photoelectron,
Kmax and the frequency of light, f is shown in the graph in Diagram 7.7.
3. From the graph, the value of the threshold frequency, f0 can be obtained
from the intercept on the f-axis.
 Diagram 7.12 Graph of Kmax against f

4. From the graph in Diagram 7.12, the relationship between the working
function and the threshold frequency, f0 for a metal can be determined using
the formula;
𝐾𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ℎ𝑓 − 𝑊
If 𝐾𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓 = 𝑓0
0 = ℎ𝑓 − 𝑊
then, 𝑊 = ℎ𝑓

5. As we discussed earlier, photoelectrons will only acquire kinetic energy when

the frequency of light exceeds the threshold frequency, f0.
6. So, the higher the threshold frequency of a metal, the higher its work function.
7. This means that the minimum energy required for a photoelectric effect to
occur is high.
8. Each type of metal has a specific work function. Therefore, photoelectric
effects for different metals require light with different frequencies.
 Diagram 7.13 Graph of Kmax against f for different types of metals

Metal Threshold frequency, f0 (Hz)

Sodium 6.65 × 1014
Calcium 6.94 × 1014
Copper 1.12 × 1015
Zinc 1.18× 1015
Nickel 1.24 × 1015
Platinum 1.37 × 1015
Table 7.9 The value of threshold frequency, f0 for different types of metals

9. As the threshold frequency, f0, each metal has a different working function.
10. This is because the energy of a metal depends on the position of electrons in
the metal.
11. Therefore, the work function for different metals varies.
12. The working functions of some metals are shown in Table 7.8 below.
 Metal Work function in eV
Manganese 4.10
Aluminium 4.30
Tungsten 4.55
Iron 4.70
Cobalt 5.00
Gold 5.10
Nickel 5.15
Table 7.10 The value of work function, W for different types of metals

 Solving Problem Involving Einstein’s Equation for Photoelectric Effect

Example 1:
The work function for a certain metal is 3.2 × 10-19 J and it is illuminated with light of
frequency of 8.0 × 1014 Hz, what is the maximum kinetic energy of photoelectrons?
[Plank’s constant, h = 6.63 × 10-34 J s]

Solution;
Kmax = hf – W
Kmax = (6.63 × 10-34)( 8.0 × 1014) – (3.2 × 10-19) = 2.104 × 10-19 J
Example 2:
The maximum wavelength of radiation that can produce the photoelectric effect
in a certain metal is 200 nm. What is the maximum kinetic energy acquired by the
electron if the wavelength of the radiation is 100 nm?
[Plank’s constant, h = 6.63 × 10-34 J s]

Solution:
Kmax = E – W
Kmax = hf – W , c = fλ
ℎ𝑐 ℎ𝑐
𝐾𝑚𝑎𝑥 = −
𝜆 𝜆0
1 1
𝐾𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ℎ𝑐 ( − )
𝜆 𝜆0
1 1
𝐾𝑚𝑎𝑥 = (6.63 × 10−34 )(3.0 × 108 ) ( −9
− )
100 × 10 200 × 10−9
𝐾𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 9.95 × 10−19 𝐽

Example 3:
A metal plate is illuminated with ultraviolet radiation of frequency 1.67 × 1015 Hz. The
maximum kinetic energy of the liberated electrons is 3.0 × 10-19 J. Calculate the
work function of the metal. [Plank’s constant, h = 6.63 × 10-34 J s]

Solution:
Kmax = hf – W
W = hf - Kmax = (6.63 × 10-34)( 1.67 × 1015) – (3.0 × 10-19) = 8.066 × 10-19 J
 GENERATING PHOTOELECTRIC CURRENT IN A PHOTOCELL CIRCUIT

1. Photograph below shows a calculator that makes power with a little built-in
solar panel.

Diagram 7.14 Calculator

2. This is example of a photocell.

3. Photocell is an electronic device that generates electricity when light falls on
them.
4. Another example of a photocell is a photo emissive cell, a type of gas-filled
of vacuum tube that is sensitive to light.

Incident light

Collector
Emitter

Diagram 7.15 A photocell circuit

 Diagram 7.16 Symbolic representation of a photocell

5. A photocell consists of two electrodes: cathode (-) and anode (+). The
cathode is in the form of semi-cylindrical plate coated with photo-sensitive
material like caesium or lithium which is alkali metal. To produce large
current, it is usually coated with caesium.
6. The anode (positive plate) is in the form of a straight wire made of nickel or
platinum.
7. When a photocell is irradiated by light, an electric current is produced in the
circuit.
8. Table 7.9 show two examples of common photocell.

Caesium Lithium

Work function of caesium, W = 2.14 eV Work function of lithium, W = 2.50 eV

Threshold frequency, f0 = 5.16 × 1014 Hz Threshold frequency, f0 = 6.03 × 1014 Hz
Maximum wavelength to produce Maximum wavelength to produce
photoelectric current, λ = 579 nm photoelectric current, λ = 496 nm
Table 7.11 Production of photoelectric current by photocell coated with caesium
and lithium
9. The shorter maximum wavelength required to produce photoelectric current
when the work function increases. As the light intensity increases, the
photoelectric current in the photocell circuit also increases.

 APPLICATION OF PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT

1. Solar cells are one of the photoelectric applications.

2. Diagram 7.17 show a cross section of a solar cell consisting of a P-N
semiconductor.
3. The advantage of this semiconductor is that it is low -frequency light, as the
visible light is sufficient to produce a photoelectric current.
4. In a solar cell there are two layers of semiconductors namely n-type and p-
type semiconductors.
5. Solar cells will capture sunlight in the form of photon energy.
6. The photon energy absorbed by the negatively charged semiconductor
layer, turn to electrons then will be released from the n-type semiconductor
to the p-type semiconductor.
7. This process causes a difference in capacity and produces electrical energy
that will be stored.

Table 7.17 Solar cell cross sections

The Noor Complex Solar Power Unit Plant
located in the Sahara Desert is one of the
largest prayer cell power stations in the
world. The station is capable of
generating a capacity of 580 MW for the
use of 1 million people.

The ISS electrical system uses solar cells to

directly convert sunlight to electricity.
Large numbers of cells are assembled in
arrays to produce high power levels.

Solar cell panels used on the rooftop. It

helps in generating power. We can store
this energy and use it to generate
electricity in our houses and save money
by reducing the electricity bill.

A photoelectric sensor consists primarily of

an emitter for emitting light and a
receiver for receiving light. When emitted
light is interrupted of reflected by the
sensing object, it changes the amount of
light that arrives at the receiver. The
receiver detects this change and
converts it to an electrical output.
 LED lamps along the road which are
powered by solar cells are energy
efficient and environmentally friendly. In
daylight, the photoelectric effect of solar
cells are enables electrical energy to be
stored in the battery. At night, the LED
lamps will light up with the power from the
battery.

The image sensor is a main component in

high-resolution cameras. This component
is used to convert light into electrical
signal which can be processed to form
digital images.

Table 7.12 Applications of photoelectric effect