INTRODUCTON TO QUANTUM PHYSICS

Quantum mechanics is the science of the very small particles which explains the behavior of
matter and its interactions with energy on the scale of atoms and subatomic particles. By
contrast, classical physics only explains matter and energy on a scale familiar to human
experience, including the behavior of astronomical bodies such as moon.

Classical physics is still used in much of modern science and technology. However, towards the
end of the 19th century, scientists discovered phenomena in both the large (macro) and the small
(micro) worlds that classical physics could not explain. The desire to resolve inconsistencies
between observed phenomenon and classical theory led to two major revolutions in physics that
created a shift in the original scientific paradigm; the theory of relativity and quantum
mechanics. These articles described how physicists discovered the limitations of classical
physics and developed main concept of the quantum theory that replaced it in early decades of
the 20th century. It describes these concepts in roughly the order in which they were first
discovered.

Light behaves in some aspects like particle and in other aspects like waves. Matter- the “stuff”
of the universe consisting of particles such as electrons and atoms-exhibits wavelike behavior
too. Some light sources such as neon light, give off only certain frequencies of light. Quantum
mechanics shows that light, along with all other forms of electromagnetic radiation comes from
in discrete units called photons and predict its energies, colors, and spectral intensities. A single
photon is a quantum or a smallest observable amount, of the electromagnetic field because a
partial photon has never been observed. More broadly , a quantum mechanics shows that many
quantities such as angular momentum that appeared continuous in the zoomed- out view of
classical mechanics, turn out to be (at the small, zoomed -in scale of quantum mechanics)
quantized. Angular momentum is required to take on one of the set of discrete allowable values
and since the gap between these values is so minute, the discontinuity is only apparent at the
atomic level.

Many aspects of quantum mechanics are counterintuitive and can seem paradoxical, because
they describe behavior quite different from that seen at larger scale lengths. In the words of
quantum physicist Richard Feynman, quantum mechanics deals with “nature as She is- absurd”.
For example the uncertainty principle of quantum mechanics means that the more closely one pin
down one measurement (such as position of a particle), the less accurate another measurement
pertaining to the same particle (such as its momentum) must become.

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 BLACK BODY RADIATION
 Black body;

Refers to the body which absorbs radiation of all wavelengths incident upon it. It neither reflect
nor transmit any of the incident radiation and therefore appear black whatever the color of
incident radiation be.
 Black body radiation
It is regarded a radiation which occurs when a black body is heated.

No actual body is perfect black body but lamp black be regarded as a black body as it absorb
nearly 99% of incident radiation.
 Spectral distribution.
The scientists were interested to know how the energy is distributed among the different
wavelength in the spectrum of a black body radiation. First in 1884 Stefan and Boltzmann
showed that the energy of radiation in unit volume of space due to all wavelength in the
spectrum.
 Stefan’s law

State that,” The total intensity of radiation is directly proportional to the fourth power of absolute
temperature”.
Example;

E∝ 𝑇 4

E=𝜎𝑇 4

Whereby σ is called Stefan’s constant and its value is 5.672 × 10−8 𝑗𝑚−2 𝑠 −1 𝑘 −4

Measurements on the spectral distribution of black body radiation have been carried out by a
number of works.
A figure below show the results of lummer and pringsheim

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 GRAPH IS DRAWN BETWEEN EMISSIVE POWE AND WAVELENGTH FOR VARIOUS
TEMPERATURES

The following are the important findings of lummer and pringsheim

i. The energy is not uniform distributed in the radiation spectrum of black body
ii. At a given temperature the intensity of radiation increases with increases in wavelength
and become maximum at particular wavelength. With further increases in wavelength,
the intensity of radiation decreases.
iii. The wavelength corresponding to the maximum energy represented by the peak of the
curve shifts towards shorter wavelengths as temperature increases.

 Wien’s formula

It is observed from the figure above that as the temperature increases the wavelength
corresponding to maximum energy 𝜆𝑚 decreases. That means the Wien’s principle state that “The
temperature of blackbody is inversely proportional to the maximum wavelength.

𝜆𝑚 𝛼 1/𝑇

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𝜆𝑚 𝑇 = 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
This relation is known as Wien’s displacement law,
Note; Wien’s formulary works well only for shorter wavelength. nb

 Rayleigh-jean’s law

On the basis of classical physics Rayleigh and jean’s derived on expression for energy density
(radiation energy/volume) of a hot body. They observed that energy density increases with
frequency and becomes infinity as shown in the figure below. This is in contraction with the
planks curve also shown in the figure below which is experimentally verified.

Paschen showed that Wien’s formula agreed with the experimental curves for shorter
wavelengths while Rayleigh formula agreed with long wavelength. As none of these formulae
could account the entire shape of radiation curve therefore. Paschen suggested that the
fundamental assumption of classical theory were at fault. This exactly occurred to plank who
proposed a new revolutionary hypothesis in 1901 known as theory of quanta.

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 PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT

Is the emission of electrons from a metal plate when illuminated by light or any other radiation of
suitable wavelength [or frequency] [ultraviolet light on?

Zinc plate and ordinary light on alkali metals such as sodium potassium and lithium]

The phenomena were discovered by hertz when he allowed ultraviolet light to fall on zinc plate

CHARECTERISTICS OF PHOTOELECTRONS

 The effect of potential difference

For a given photo metallic surface, a keeping the intensity and frequency of the incident radiation fixed
let us and

Consider the effect potential different between the plates

 The effect of intensity of incident radiation

Let us consider the intensity of the incident radiation of the same frequency difference between the two
plates for different

intensities of incident radiation

 The effect of the frequency of incident radiation

Now we shall consider the effect of varying frequency of the incident radiation while keeping the same
emitting surface and the same intensity

Of incident radiation

FUNDAMENTAL LAWS OF PHOTOELECTRIC EMISSION

 The number of electrons emitted per second that is photoelectric current is proportional to the
intensity of incident light
 For a given material there exist a certain minimum frequency of the incident light so that the
photoelectrons can ejected
 The rate at which the electrons are emitted from photocathode is independent of its
temperature
 The rate at which electrons the are emitted from the photocathode is independent of its
temperature
 For a given metal surface stopping potential [v ] is directly proportional to frequency but is
independent of the intensity incident light

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 EINSTEN PHOTOELECTRIC EQUATION

Following Planck’s idea that consist of photons Einstein’s proposed an explanation of photoelectric one
photon is completely absorbed

By one electrons which there gains the quantum of energy and may be emitted from the metal

The photons energy is used in the following two parts

 A part of its energy is used to free the electron from the atom and away from the metal surface
this energy is known as photoelectric Work function
1
 The other part is used in giving kinetic energy to the electron [KE = ℎ𝑣 = 𝑤𝑜 + 𝑚𝑣 2
2

COMPTON EFFECT

When a beam of Monochromatic Radiation strikes the target, the radiation is dispersed in all direction.
This phenomenon is called Scattering.

The angle between the directions of incident radiation and the scattered ray is called scattering angle.

When a monochromatic radiation of high frequency is scattering by a substance, the radiation scattered
have two components

i. Lower frequency or greater wavelength

ii. Same frequency or wavelength

The radiation of the same frequency in the scattered beam is called unmodified Radiation.

The radiation of the lower or slightly higher frequency is called Modified radiation. This phenomenon is
known as COMPTON EFFECT.

According to Compton, the phenomenon of scattering is due to an elastic collision between two
particles, the photon of incident radiation and the electrons of the scattered.

When a photon of energy hf collides with the electron of the scattered at rest, it transfer some energy
to the electron i.e. it loses energy ℎ𝑓 ′

The scattered photon will therefore have smaller energy and consequently a lower frequency or greater
wavelength than that of the incident radiation.

In the scattering process, the electron gains kinetic energy and thus recoils with the velocity v

NOTE: ∅ 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒

𝜃 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒

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 From the figure (a) above showing the photon and electron energy before collision,

Energy of photon(𝐸𝑃 ) = ℎ𝑓

Energy of the electron(𝐸𝑒 ) = 𝑚𝑜 𝑐 2 at rest

After Collision

Photon energy(𝐸𝑃 ) = ℎ𝑓 ′

Energy of electron(𝐸𝑒 ) = 𝑚𝑐 2

Apply the law of conservation of energy

Energy before collision = Energy after Collision.

ℎ𝑓 + 𝑚𝑜 𝑐 2 = ℎ𝑓 ′ + 𝑚𝑐 2

𝑚𝑐 2 = ℎ𝑓 − ℎ𝑓 ′ + 𝑚𝑜 𝑐 2

𝑚𝑐 2 = ℎ(𝑓 − 𝑓 ′ ) + 𝑚𝑜 𝑐 2

According to Einstein, Energy is given as follows 𝐸 = 𝑚𝑐 2

Therefore, this is the energy of the moving electron.

𝐸 = 𝑚𝑐 2 = ℎ(𝑓 − 𝑓 ′ ) + 𝑚𝑜 𝑐 2 ……………………………………………………………………………. I

According to the principle of momentum

For the case of Photon.

ℎ 𝑐
𝑝 = ⋋, but ⋋= 𝑓

ℎ𝑓
𝑃=
𝑐
Hence,

Momentum before collision = Momentum after Collision,

Consider the positive x-direction

ℎ𝑓 ℎ𝑓 ′ cos 𝜃
+0= + 𝑚𝑣 cos ∅
𝑐 𝑐
ℎ𝑓 ℎ𝑓 ′ cos 𝜃
𝑚𝑣 cos ∅ = −
𝑐 𝑐
ℎ
𝑚𝑣 cos ∅ = 𝑐
(𝑓 − 𝑓 ′ cos 𝜃) ……………………………………………………………………………………… ii

For y-direction
ℎ𝑓 ′ sin 𝜃
0= − 𝑚𝑣 sin ∅
𝑐

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ℎ𝑓′ sin 𝜃
𝑐
= 𝑚𝑣 sin ∅ …………………………………………………………………………………… iii

Square equation (ii) and (iii) and then add them

For equation (ii)

ℎ
(𝑚𝑣 cos ∅)2 = ( (𝑓 − 𝑓 ′ cos 𝜃))2
𝑐
ℎ2 𝑓2 2ℎ 2 𝑓𝑓′ cos 𝜃 ℎ 2 𝑓′2 𝑐𝑜𝑠2 𝜃
𝑚2 𝑣 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 ∅ = 𝑐2
− 𝑐2
+ 𝑐2
……………………………………………………………. Iv

For equation (iii)

ℎ𝑓 ′ sin 𝜃
𝑚𝑣 sin ∅ =
𝑐
ℎ 2 𝑓′2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃
𝑚2 𝑣 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 ∅ = …………………………………………………………………………………….. v
𝑐2

Then, adding them we obtain

ℎ2 𝑓 ′2 (𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃) ℎ2 𝑓 2 2ℎ2 𝑓𝑓 ′ cos 𝜃

𝑚2 𝑣 2 (𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 ∅ + 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 ∅) = + 2 −
𝑐2 𝑐 𝑐2
ℎ2 𝑓 ′2 ℎ2 𝑓 2 2ℎ2 𝑓𝑓 ′ cos 𝜃
𝑚2 𝑣 2 = + 2 −
𝑐2 𝑐 𝑐2
𝑚2 𝑣 2 𝑐 2 = ℎ2 (𝑓 2 + 𝑓 ′2 − 2𝑓𝑓 ′ cos 𝜃) …………………………………………………………………….. vi

From equation (i) above

𝑚𝑐 2 = ℎ(𝑓 − 𝑓 ′ ) + 𝑚𝑜 𝑐 2
Square both side of the equation

𝑚2 𝑐 4 = ℎ2 𝑓 2 − 2ℎ2 𝑓𝑓 ′ + ℎ2 𝑓 ′2 + 2𝑚𝑜 𝑐 2 ℎ𝑓 − 2𝑚𝑜 𝑐 2 ℎ𝑓 ′ + 𝑚𝑜 2 𝑐 4 ……………………………… vii

Subtracting equation (vi) from equation (vii) we obtain the following

𝑚2 𝑐 2 (𝑐 2 − 𝑣 2 ) = −2ℎ2 𝑓𝑓 ′ (1 − cos 𝜃) + 2ℎ(𝑓 − 𝑓 ′ )𝑚𝑜 𝑐 2 + 𝑚𝑜 2 𝑐 4 …………………………….. ix

For electron,

The conservation of energy of electron before and after collision.

𝑚𝑜 2 𝑐 2 = 𝑚2 (𝑐 2 − 𝑣 2 ) _______________________________________ x

Substitute equation (x) into equation (viii)

𝑚𝑜 2 𝑐 4 = −2ℎ2 𝑓𝑓 ′ (1 − cos 𝜃) + 2ℎ(𝑓 − 𝑓 ′ )𝑚𝑜 𝑐 2 + 𝑚𝑜 2 𝑐 4

2ℎ2 𝑓𝑓 ′ (1 − cos 𝜃) = 2ℎ(𝑓 − 𝑓 ′ )𝑚𝑜 𝑐 2

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ℎ𝑓𝑓 ′ (1 − cos 𝜃) + (𝑓 − 𝑓 ′ )𝑚𝑜 𝑐 2
𝑓 − 𝑓 ′ ℎ(1 − cos 𝜃)
=
𝑓𝑓 ′ 𝑚𝑜 𝑐 2
1 1 ℎ
− = (1 − cos 𝜃)
𝑓 ′ 𝑓 𝑚𝑜 𝑐 2
The above equation shows that 𝑓 ′ < 𝑓 as h, mo are the constants and the maximum value of cos 𝜃 = 1

This shows that the scattered frequency is always smaller than the incident frequency.

Consider the following equation,

1 1 ℎ
− = (1 − cos 𝜃)
𝑓 ′ 𝑓 𝑚𝑜 𝑐 2
𝑐 𝑐 ℎ
′
− = (1 − cos 𝜃)
𝑓 𝑓 𝑚𝑜 𝑐
ℎ
⋋′ −⋋ = (1 − cos 𝜃)
𝑚𝑜 𝑐
But, ⋋′ −⋋ = ∆ ⋋

𝜃 2
1 − cos 𝜃 = 2(sin )
2
Therefore,
𝜃
2ℎ𝑠𝑖𝑛2
2
∆ ⋋= 𝑚𝑜 𝑐

Where,

∆ ⋋ is the change in wavelength

When = 0 , ∆ ⋋= 0 means that there is no scattering along the direction of incidence.

PHOTON

A photon is the smallest discrete amount 0f quantum of electromagnetic radiation. It is the basic
unit of all light.

Photons are always in motion and, in a vacuum, travel at a constant speed to all observations of
2.99× 108 𝑚⁄𝑠 .This is commonly referred to as to as the speed of light, denoted by the letter 𝑐.

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 Einstein proved that light is a flow, the energy of this photons is the height of their
oscillation frequency, and the intensity of the light corresponds to the number of photons.
Essentially, he explained how a stream of photons can act as a wave and particle.

PROPERTIES OF PHOTONS.
The basic properties of photons are;

 They have zero mass and rest energy.i.e. they only exist as moving particles.
 They are elementary particles despite lacking rest mass.
 They have no electric charge.
 They are stable.
 They carry energy and momentum which are dependent on the frequency.
 They have no interactions with other particles such as electrons, such as the Compton
Effect.
 They can be destroyed or created by many natural process, for instance when radiation is
absorbed or emitted.
 When empty space, they travel at the speed of light.
The energy of photons can be given by the following plank’s formula;

𝐸 = ℎ𝑓
𝑐
But 𝑓 = 𝜆
ℎ𝑐
𝐸= 𝜆

Where ℎ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ,

ℎ = 6.626 × 10−34
And c is the speed of light,
1
Hence 𝐸𝛼 𝜆

The magnitude of photons momentum is given as

ℎ𝑓
𝑝= Which can be derived as follows?
𝑐

𝐸 = 𝑚𝑐 2 ……………………………………………..(1)

𝐸 = ℎ𝑓 … … … … … … … … … … …(2)

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Compare the two equations
𝑚𝑐 2 ℎ𝑓
=
𝑐 𝑐

𝑚𝑐 = 𝑝
Then
ℎ𝑓
𝑝= 𝑐

PHOTONS AND GRAVITY.

Although the photons lack rest mass behave as though they have gravitational mass.
From

𝑝 = 𝑚𝑐
𝑝
𝑚= 𝑐

ℎ𝑓
But, 𝑝 = 𝑐
ℎ𝑓
𝑐
𝑚=
𝑐

ℎ𝑓
𝑚= 𝑐2

Therefore, according to principle of equivalence gravitational mass is always equal internal mass
which is given as;
ℎ𝑓
𝑚= 𝑐2

All photons travel with speed of light and so cannot go any faster. However, a photon that falls
through a height H

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 FRANCK HERTZ EXPERIMEN
Franck Hertz experiment this was an experiment performed by two Berlin experimenters, James
Frank and Gustav Hertz and so called Franck Hertz experiment.

In this experiment electrons are ejected from a cathode C, into a tube filled with mercury gas as
shown in the figure below. The energy of the electrons can be increased in a controllable manner
by accelerating them towards the positively charged grid G, through the potential difference Va.
Electrons fly through the grid toward anode A. between G and A, a small retarding voltage Vr,
decelerates the electrons. They will only reach the anode A, if their energies V exceed Vr, where
they will be recorded by the ammeter A. Only electrons with sufficient energy will cause the
mercury atoms to make transitions to higher states of energy. The electrons will lose their energy
to the atoms.

If kinetic energy is conserved when the electron collides with one of the atoms in the vapour, the
electron merely bounces off in a new direction, because an atom is much heavier than an
electron. Then electron loses almost no kinetic energies in the process. After a certain critical
energy is reached, however, the plate current drops abruptly this suggests that an electron
colliding with one of the atoms gives up some or all of its kinetic energy to excite the atom to an
energy level above its ground states. Such a collision is called inelastic, in contrast to an elastic
collision in which kinetic energy is conserved. Note that the energy lost by electron equals to
energy gain by mercury atom.

Then, as the accelerating potential V is raised further, the plate current again increases, since the
electrons now have enough energy left to reach plate after undergoing an inelastic collision on
the way. Eventually another sharp drop in plate current occurs, which arises from the excitation
of some energy level in other atoms by the electrons. As shown in the figure below a series of
critical potentials for a given atomic vapour is obtained. Thus the higher potentials result from
two or more inelastic collisions and are multiples of the lowest one. To check that the critical
potentials were due to atomic energy levels, Franck and Hertz observed the emission spectra of

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vapours during electron bombardment. In the case of mercury vapour, For example they found
that minimum electron energy of 4.9eV was required to excite the 253.6nm spectral line of
mercury and a photon of 253.6 light has energy of just 4.9eV. Franck Hertz experiments were
performed shortly after Bohr announced his theory of the hydrogen atom, and they independently
confirmed his basic ideas.

Franck and Hertz realized on Bohr explanation that excitation of mercury atom take place due to
the absorption of energy in form of discrete of quanta and returning back to the ground level of
mercury atom emits energy in form of discrete of quanta.

can manifest the increase of 𝑚𝑔𝐻 in its energy by an increase in frequency from 𝑓 𝑡𝑜 𝑓 ′
because the frequency change is extremely small in the laboratory-scale experiment, we can
ℎ𝑓
neglect the corresponding change in the photons mass which is given as 𝑚 = 𝑐2

Consider the diagram below.

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 BOHR’S ATOMIC MODEL
Bohr developed his theory of the atomic structure by retaining the two essential features of
Rutherford’s planetary model. That is

1. The atom consists of central positively charged hard core called nucleus.
2. The electrons revolving around the nucleus in circular orbits – the outward centrifugal
force is balance by the net electrostatic attraction toward the nucleus.
However, by the Planck’s quantum theory, Bohr made the following assumption

3. He assumed that the angular momentum of the electrons revolving around the nucleus
𝑛ℎ
of an atom is multiple of 2𝜋 . As the momentum of revolving electrons is mv and it’s
𝑛ℎ
momentum about the nucleus is mvr hence 𝑚𝑣𝑟 = , where n = 1, 2, 3, for first,
2𝜋
second, and third orbit respectively and h is Planck’s constant.
4. No energy is radiated by the electrons as long as it remains in its definite or stationary
orbit.
5. When an electron jumps from the ground state to the excited state it absorbs energy but
when it falls back from the excited toward the ground state it emits energy in the form
of electromagnetic radiation.

The difference of energies is radiated and must be quantum of energy ℎ𝑣;

𝐸1 + 𝐸2 =ℎ𝑣

Bohr’s theory of hydrogen atom

Consider the diagram below 𝑣

𝑚𝑣²
⁺⁺ 𝑟

From assumption 2 made by bohr; the coulomb’s force of attraction between the electrons and
nucleus is balanced with centrifugal.

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 ℯ² 𝑚𝑣²
= …………………………………………….. (1)
4𝜋ℰ𝑟² 𝑟

Also recall from assumption 3

𝑛ℎ
𝑚𝑣𝑟 = ……………………………………… (2)
2𝜋

Make 𝑣 as the subject of the formula

𝑛ℎ
𝑣= …………………………………….. (3)
2𝜋𝑚𝑟

a) Radii of orbits
From equation (1)
ℯ² 𝑚𝑣²
=
4𝜋ℰ𝑟² 𝑟
Substitute equation 3 into the equation above
ℯ² 𝑚 𝑛ℎ
= (2𝜋𝑚𝑟)²
4𝜋ℰ𝑟² 𝑟

ℯ² 𝑚𝑛2 ℎ²
=
4𝜋ℰ𝑟² 4𝜋²𝑚²𝑟³

ℯ² 𝑛2 ℎ²
=
ℰ 𝜋𝑚𝑟
By making r as the subject of the formula then the equation above become
𝑛2 ℎ 2 ℰ
𝑟= 𝜋𝑚ℯ 2
Therefore;
𝑛2 ℎ²ℰ
𝑟𝑛 = 𝜋𝑚ℯ²

This show that the radii of permitted orbits vary as the square of n.
That; 𝑟𝑛 ∝ 𝑛²
For the smallest orbit n = 1
h = 6.63 x 10-34

𝓔 = 8.85 x 10-12
m = 9.1 x 10-31
e = 1.6 x 10-19
Then

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 −12
12 𝑥 (6.68 𝑥 10−34)² 𝑥 8.85 𝑥 10
𝑟1 =
𝜋 𝑥 9.1 𝑥 10−31 𝑥 (1.6 𝑥 10−19 )²
𝑟1 = 0.532Ȧ
b) Velocity of revolving electrons
From equation (2)
𝑛ℎ
𝑚𝑣𝑟 = 2𝜋

𝑛2 ℎ²ℰ
But 𝑟 = 𝜋𝑚ℯ²

𝑛2 ℎ²ℰ 𝑛ℎ
𝑚𝑣( 𝜋𝑚ℯ² ) = 2𝜋
𝑛2 ℎ²ℰ𝑜 𝑛ℎ
𝑣𝑥 =
𝜋ℯ² 2𝜋
𝑛ℎ 𝜋ℯ²
𝑣= x 𝑛2 ℎ²ℰ
2𝜋 𝑜
ℯ²
Therefore, 𝑣 = 2𝑛ℎℰ𝑜
The above expression show that the velocity of the electron is inversely proportional to n,
1
𝑣 ∝ 𝑛. such that the electrons in the innermost orbit has the highest velocity.

c) Orbital frequency of electrons

From,
ℯ²
𝑣=
2𝑛ℎℰ𝑜
The electron revolving around the nucleus with angular velocity ω,
𝑣
ω=𝑟

𝑣 = 𝜔𝑟
Then,
ℯ²
𝜔𝑟 = , also ω = 2𝜋𝑓
2𝑛ℎℰ𝑜

ℯ²
2𝜋𝑓𝑟 =
2𝑛ℎℰ𝑜
𝑛2 ℎ²ℰ𝑜
But, 𝑟 = 𝜋𝑚ℯ²

𝑛2 ℎ2ℰ𝑜 ℯ²
2𝜋𝑓 ( ) =
𝜋𝑚ℯ 2 2𝑛ℎℰ𝑜
From the above equation by making 𝑓 as the subject

17 | P a g e
 ℯ4
𝑓=
4𝑛3 ℎ3 ℰ𝑜 ²
The expression above show that the orbital frequency is inversely proportional to the
1
cube of n, 𝑓 ∝ .
𝑛³
Also the periodic time of the electrons revolving around the nucleus is given by,
4𝑛3 ℎ³ℰ𝑜
𝑇=
ℯ4
𝑇 ∝ 𝑛³

ELECTRON ENERGY
I. Kinetic energy
Kinetic energy is the energy due to the motion of the electron and its value is
1
𝑚𝑣 2 where 𝑣 is the velocity of the electrons.
2
1
𝐾. 𝐸 = 𝑚𝑣²
2
ℯ²
But , 𝑣 = 2𝑛ℎℰ
𝑜
1 ℯ2
𝐾. 𝐸 = 𝑚( )²
2 2𝑛ℎℰ𝑜
𝑚ℯ 4
𝐾. 𝐸 = 2
8𝑛 ℎ²𝜀 2
The above expression shows the kinetic energy of the electrons revolving around the nucleus.

II. Potential energy

The potential energy is the energy due to the fact that the electron lies in the electric field
of positive nucleus. We know that potential at a distance r from the nucleus is given by
−ℯ
𝑣 = 4𝜋ℰ 𝑟
𝑜
But 𝑃. 𝐸 = 𝑣(−𝑒)

−𝑒²
𝑃. 𝐸 =
4𝜋ℰ𝑜 𝑟
𝑛2 ℎ²ℰ𝑜
Also, 𝑟 = 𝜋𝑚ℯ²

18 | P a g e
 −ℯ² 𝜋𝑚ℯ 4
𝑃. 𝐸 = (𝑛2 ℎ²ℰ )
4𝜋ℰ𝑂 𝑜

−𝑚ℯ 4
𝑃. 𝐸 =
4𝑛2 ℎ²ℰ𝑜 2
The above equation shows the potential energy of the electrons revolving around the
nucleus.

III. Orbit energy

𝐸𝑛 = 𝑃. 𝐸 + 𝐾. 𝐸
𝑚ℯ 4 −𝑚ℯ 4
𝐸𝑛 = + 4𝑛2 ℎ²ℰ 2
8𝑛2 ℎ²ℰ𝑜 ² 𝑜

−𝑚ℯ 4
𝐸𝑛 =
8𝑛2 ℎ²ℰ𝑜 ²
The net energy is negative because the potential energy in magnitude is greater than the
kinetic energy. Hence the negative in the formula above signifiers that the electrons
cannot escape from the atom.

IV. Frequency of the emitted radiation

From
ℎ𝑓 = 𝐸𝑛1 + 𝐸𝑛2

−𝑚ℯ 4 −𝑚ℯ 4
ℎ𝑓 = (8ℰ 2 ℎ2𝑛22 ) − (8ℎ2ℰ𝑜2𝑛1 ²)
𝑜

𝑚ℯ 4 1 1
ℎ𝑓 = 2 2
( + )
8ℰ𝑜 ℎ 𝑛1 2
𝑐
But, 𝑓 = ʎ

𝑐 𝑚ℯ 4 1 1
= 2 3
( 2− )
𝑓 8ℰ𝑜 ℎ 𝑛1 𝑛2 ²
1 𝑚ℯ 4 1 1
= (𝑛2 − )…………………………………………………….(4)
ʎ 8𝑐ℰ𝑜2 ℎ3 1 𝑛22

𝑚ℯ 4
Let, = 𝑅
8𝑐ℰ𝑜2 ℎ3

1
But also, = Ṽ, where Ṽ is the wave number
ʎ

Then equation (4) above becomes,

1 1
Ṽ = R(𝑛 - 𝑛 )
1 2

19 | P a g e
This is general expression for the wave number of the radiation emitted by the electron when it
jumps from the higher orbits 𝑛2 to lower orbit 𝑛1 .

Electron energy level in hydrogen atom

−𝑚ℯ 4
𝐸𝑛 =
8𝑛2 ℎ²ℰ𝑜 ²

−(9.1 𝑥 10−31 ) 𝑥 (1.6 𝑥 10−19 )

𝐸𝑛 =
8 𝑥 (8.854 𝑥10 −12

21.7 𝑥 10−19
𝐸𝑛 = 𝐽
𝑛2
But 1eV = 1.6 x 10−19 𝐽

−21.7 𝑥 10−19
𝐸𝑛 = 𝑒𝑉
1.6 𝑥 10−19 𝑛²
−13 . 6
𝐸𝑛 = 𝑒𝑉
𝑛²
The significance of negative sign in equation above is that the electron is bound to the nuclear by
attractive force and separate the electron from the nucleus energy must be applied to it.
Giving different value to n we can calculate the orbital energy of the electron in different orbits

𝐸1 = −13.6𝑒𝑉 When n = 1 (K-shell)

𝐸2 = −3.4𝑒𝑉 n = 2 (L-shell)

𝐸3 = −1.5𝑒𝑉 n = 3 (M-shell)
………………….. …………………
…………………… …………………

𝐸∞ = 𝑂𝑒𝑉 n=∞

Important point

20 | P a g e
  When the hydrogen atom receives a photon of any energy which is greater than its
binding energy of 13.6eV, its absorb the photon and the electron of the atom passes
from its discrete ground state to continuum state. Let the electron absorbs an energy
of 25Ev. This energy is not only sufficient to remove the electron from the atom
(13.6Ev) but it imparts an addition energy 25eV – 13.6eV= 11.4𝑒𝑉 to the electron
 Let the electron absorb an energy of 13.6𝑒𝑉. The electron is raised to 𝑛 = ∞
Level, i.e. the electron is free from the nucleus and have only its thermal kinetic
energy. Since, the electron is completely removed from the, the atom is said to be
ionised. The energy is 13.6𝑒𝑉 is called as ionization energy of hydrogen atom. In this
way the ionization potential of hydrogen atom is 13.6𝑒𝑉.

PLANCK’S RADIATION LAW

Planck’s led to certain conclusion about the nature of the electromagnetic oscillators which are in
equilibrium with the energy density within the blackbody cavity.

In 1900 Planck’s suggested that the correct results can be obtained if the energy of oscillating
electrons is taken as a discrete rather than continuous. He derived the radiation law by using the
following postulates; -

I. A chamber or cavity containing a blackbody radiation also contains simple harmonic

oscillators of molecular dimensions that vibrate with the all possible frequencies.
II. The amount of energy emitted or absorbed by an oscillator is proportional to its
frequency. Given as∆𝐸 = ℎ𝑓 where h is the Planck’s constant and is given as
𝑗
6.625𝑥10−34 ⁄𝑠 and f is the frequency.
III. An oscillator cannot have an arbitrary energy but must occupy one of a discrete set of
energy.𝐸𝑛 = 𝑛ℎ𝑓 But n is the set of integers and zero and can be given as [0, 1, 2, 3,
4…..] means an oscillator cannot emit energy in a continuous manner. It can emit energy
in a small unit of multiple called photon or quantum.
IV. An oscillator can emit or absorb energy in packets of hf. this implies that the exchange of
energy between radiation and matter cannot take place continuously but are limited to
discrete set of values such as 0, hf,2hf,3hf,4hf…. nhf. consider if N is the total number of
𝐸
Planck’s oscillators and E is the total energy, and is given as 𝜀 = 𝑁
V. The frequency of radiation emitted by an oscillator is the same as the frequency of its
vibrations.

21 | P a g e
Also the derivation of Planck’s radiation law involves the Maxwell’s distribution

𝑁𝑛 = 𝑒 −𝑛ℎ𝑓/𝑘𝑇 , from the general concept of total energy per number of Planck’s oscillators can
be given as
∑𝑛=∞
𝑛=0 𝑁𝑛 𝐸𝑛
𝜀𝑛 = ∑𝑛=∞
by substituting the value of 𝑁𝑛 from the above equation and 𝐸 = 𝑛ℎ𝑓 according
𝑛=0 𝑁𝑛
to the Planck’s radiation law gives
∑𝑛=∞
𝑛=0 𝑒
−𝑛ℎ𝑓/𝑘𝑇 .𝑛ℎ𝑓
𝜀𝑛 = ∑𝑛=∞ −𝑛ℎ𝑓/𝑘𝑇
𝑛=0 𝑒

0+ℎ𝑓𝑒 −ℎ𝑓/𝑘𝑇 +2ℎ𝑓𝑒 −2ℎ𝑓/𝑘𝑇 +3ℎ𝑓𝑒 −3ℎ𝑓/𝑘𝑇 +4ℎ𝑓𝑒 −4ℎ𝑓/𝑘𝑇 +⋯

𝜀𝑛 = 1+𝑒 −ℎ𝑓/𝑘𝑇 +𝑒 −2ℎ𝑓/𝑘𝑇 +𝑒 −3ℎ𝑓/𝑘𝑇 +𝑒 −4ℎ𝑓/𝑘𝑇 +⋯

ℎ𝑓𝑒 −ℎ𝑓/𝑘𝑇 +2ℎ𝑓𝑒 −2ℎ𝑓/𝑘𝑇 +3ℎ𝑓𝑒 −3ℎ𝑓/𝑘𝑇 +⋯

𝜀𝑛 = 1+𝑒 −ℎ𝑓/𝑘𝑇 +𝑒 −2ℎ𝑓/𝑘𝑇 +𝑒 −3ℎ𝑓/𝑘𝑇 +⋯

But let 𝑒 −ℎ𝑓/𝑘𝑇 =x

ℎ𝑓𝑥+2ℎ𝑓𝑥 2 +3ℎ𝑓𝑥 3 +⋯.
𝜀𝑛 = 1+𝑥+𝑥 2 +𝑥 3 +⋯..

ℎ𝑓𝑥[1+2𝑥+3𝑥 2 +4𝑥3 +⋯
𝜀𝑛 = 1+𝑥+𝑥 2 +𝑥 3 +⋯

From binomial expansion

1
1 + 2𝑥 + 3𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 3 + ⋯ = [1−𝑥]2

1
And 1 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 3 + ⋯ = 1−𝑥
1
ℎ𝑓𝑥. ℎ𝑓𝑥
[1−𝑥]2
𝜀𝑛 = 1 = 1−𝑥 divide by x to each value
1−𝑥

ℎ𝑓 ℎ𝑓
𝜀𝑛 = 1⁄ = 𝑥 −1 −1¬ but x=𝑒 −ℎ𝑓/𝑘𝑇
𝑥 −1

ℎ𝑓
𝜀𝑛 = 𝑒 ℎ𝑓/𝑘𝑇 −1
𝐸
But 𝜀𝑛 = 𝑁
𝐸 ℎ𝑓
= 𝑒 ℎ𝑓/𝑘𝑇 −1, where E is the average total energy and N is the number of Planck’s oscillator
𝑁

ℎ𝑓𝑁
𝐸𝑛 = ℎ𝑓⁄ ,but N is the number of oscillators per unit volume
𝑒 𝑘𝑇 −1

8𝜋𝑓 2
𝑁= 𝑑𝑓
𝑐3

22 | P a g e
 8𝜋𝑓2
ℎ𝑓[ ]
𝑐3
𝐸𝑛 𝑑𝑓 = ℎ𝑓⁄ 𝑑𝑓
𝑒 𝑘𝑇 −1

8𝜋𝑓 3 1
𝐸𝑛 𝑑𝑓 = × ℎ𝑓⁄ 𝑑𝑓 , this is known as the Planck’s radiation law and can be simplified in
𝑐3
𝑒 𝑘𝑇 −1
terms of wavelength; -
𝑐 𝑐
Consider f=⋋ and 𝑑𝑓 = ⋋2 𝑑⋋

8𝜋ℎ[𝑐⁄⋋]3 1 𝐶
𝐸𝑛 𝑑⋋ = × ℎ𝑐⁄⋋
× ⋋2 𝑑⋋
𝑐3 ⁄
𝑒 𝐾𝑇 −1

8𝜋ℎ𝑐
𝐸𝑛 𝑑⋋ = ℎ𝑐 𝑑⋋
⋋5 𝑒 ⁄𝐾𝑇⋋ −1

The Planck’s radiation law can be used to derive the Wien’s law and the Rayleigh-jeans formula.
Wien’s law
ℎ𝑓⁄
Considering the for small temperature, ⋋ is also small then, 𝑒 𝑘𝑇⋋>>1 hence 1 can be neglected
to the denominator. TheWien’s equation can be given as
−ℎ𝑐⁄
8𝜋ℎ𝑐𝑒 𝑘𝑇⋋
𝐸𝑛 𝑑⋋ = 𝑑⋋
⋋5

The derivation of Rayleigh-jeans can be derived considering the binomial expansion of the
exponential function, give as
ℎ𝑐⁄ ℎ𝑐 ℎ𝑐
𝑒 𝐾𝑇⋋ = 1 + 𝑘𝑇⋋ + 2𝑘𝑇⋋ + ⋯
8𝜋ℎ𝑐 1
𝑏𝑦 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 , 𝐸𝑛 𝑑⋋ = × ℎ𝑐 𝑑⋋
⋋5 1+ +..−1
𝑘𝑇⋋

8𝜋ℎ𝑐.𝑘𝑇⋋
𝐸𝑛 𝑑⋋ = 𝑑⋋
⋋5 ℎ𝑐

8𝜋𝑘𝑇
𝐸𝑛 𝑑⋋ = 𝑑⋋
⋋4

The above equation is called the Rayleigh-jeans equation or formula.

23 | P a g e
EINSTERN’S PHOTO-ELECTRIC EQUATION

Following plank’s idea that light consists of photons, Einstein proposed an explanation of photo-
electric effect as early as 1905.According to Einstein’s explanation in photo-electric effect one
photon is completely absorbed by one electron which there by gains the quantum of energy and
may be emitted from the metal .The photon’s energy is used in the two parts ;

1. A part of its energy is used to free the electron from the atom and away from the metal
surface. This energy is known as photoelectric work function of the metal which is
denoted by Wo.
𝑚𝑣 2
2. The other part is used in giving kinetic energy ( ) to the electron.
2
Thus,
𝑚𝑣 2
ℎ𝜐 = 𝑊𝑜 + … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . (1)
2
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑣 is the velocity of the emitted electron. Equation (1) is the Einstein’s
photoelectric equation.
When photon‘s energy is of such a value that can only liberate the electron from the
metal , then the kinetic energy of the electron will be zero ,hence equation one will
become .
ℎ𝜐0= 𝑊𝑜 ………………………………………………………………….(2)
Where 𝜐0 is called threshold frequency.
Threshold frequency; Is the minimum frequency which can cause photoelectric emission.
If the frequency is below the threshold frequency no emission of electron will take place.
Threshold wavelength𝜆0 () ; Is the upper limit of wavelength for photo electric emission
. Its significance is that if the wavelength is greater than threshold wavelength no
emission of electrons from the metal. The value of 𝜆0 can be obtained from.
𝑐 = 𝜆0 𝜐0

3×108 ×6.625×10−26 𝑐 ℎ𝑐
𝜆0 = 𝜆0=𝜐 =𝑊 Since 𝑊0 = ℎ𝜐0
𝑊0 0 0

𝜆 19.875×10−26
0= (𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑒)
𝑊0

Here 𝑊0 is in joules .if it is expressed in electron volts (eV) then

𝜆 19.875×10−26
0=
1.602×10−19 𝑊0

12.4×10−7
= (metre)
𝑤0

24 | P a g e
 12400
𝜆0 = Å……………………………............(3)
𝑊0

Again

12400
𝑊0 (𝑒𝑉) … … … … … … … … (4)
𝜆0

Substituting the value of 𝑊0 in equation one above

𝑚𝑣 2
ℎ𝜐 = ℎ𝜐0 +
2

Or

𝑚𝑣 2
= (ℎ𝜐 + 𝜐0 ) = ℎ(𝜐 + 𝜐Ο ) … … … … … … … … … … … … . . (5)
2

This is another Einstein’s photo electric equation

Again from equation (1) we have

𝑚𝑣 2
= ℎ𝜐 − 𝑊𝑂
2

For a particular emitter work function 𝑊0 is a constant and hence

𝑚𝑣 2
= ℎ𝜐
2

𝜈 2 𝛼𝜐 … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . (6)

Thus the increase in frequency of incident light causes the increase in velocity of photo-electrons
provided the intensity of incident light is constant.

Also the intensity of emitted electron is directly proportional to the intensity of intensity of
incident of radiation.

From equation (5) we have

𝑚𝑣 2
= ℎ𝜐 − ℎ𝜐0
2

If is stopping potential, then

25 | P a g e
 𝑒𝑉0 = ℎ𝜐 − ℎ𝜐Ο

ℎ𝜐 ℎ𝜐0
𝑒𝑉0 = +
𝑒 𝑒

DE BROGLIE THEORY
Matter waves are central part of the theory of quantum mechanics being an example of wave
particle duality. Matter waves are referred to as de Broglie waves

The de Broglie wavelength is the wavelength associated with a massive particle and is related to
its momentum, 𝑝 through the planck constant ℎ

According to de Broglie’s “a moving particle is associated with a wave which is known as de

Broglie wave”
ℎ ℎ
The wavelength of the matter is given by ⋋= 𝑚𝑣 = 𝑝

Where, m is the mass of the material particle

V is velocity associated with particle and 𝑝 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚

 Expression for the de-Broglie Wavelength

Consider the Planck’s theory of radiation the energy of photon is given by

ℎ𝑐
𝐸 = ℎ𝑓 = ………………………………………………………….. i
⋋

Where, c is the velocity of light.

Also, according to Einstein energy-mass relation

𝐸 = 𝑚𝑐 2 ……………………………………………………………… ii
Equate equation (i) and (ii)

𝑚𝑐 2 = ℎ𝑐⁄⋋

26 | P a g e
 ℎ
𝑚𝑐 =
⋋
ℎ
⋋=
𝑚𝑐
ℎ
⋋= 𝑝 ………………………………………………..………………….. iii

Where, p is the momentum associated with the photons.

If we consider a material particle of mass m moving with the velocity v, therefore the
wavelength associated with this particle is given by
ℎ ℎ
⋋= =
𝑚𝑣 𝑝
If 𝐸 is the kinetic energy of the material particle, then
1
𝐸= 𝑚𝑣 2
2
𝑚2 𝑣 2
𝐸=
2𝑚
But, 𝑚𝑣 = 𝑝

𝑝2
𝐸=
2𝑚
𝑝 = √2𝑚𝐸
From equation (iii)
ℎ
⋋=
𝑝
Thus,
ℎ
⋋=
√2𝑚𝐸
nds light. This phenomenon is called gravitational lensing. When we observe a distant galaxy,
the gravity light matter between Earth and the galaxy causes light rays to be bent into different
paths. When the light reaches the telescope, multiple images of the same galaxy appear.

27 | P a g e
 WAVE AND PARTICLE DUALITY OF RADIATION
To be aware with the wave and particle duality, first you need to know particle and wave.

Any particle it has mass, it can move from one point to another, it is located at some definite
point, it gives some energy when slowed down a stopped. This particle is described by a mass 𝑚,
velocity 𝑣, momentum 𝑃 and energy 𝐸.

But for wave its concept is more difficult compared to that of particle. A wave tends to spread
out over a relatively large region of space it cannot be said to be located just here and there. it is
very difficult to think of mass being associated with the wave. Automatically wave is the spread
out of the medium when disturbed wave is described by a frequency, wavelength, phase of
velocity, amplitude and intensity.

By considering that above factor, it seems to be difficult to accept the ideas that radiation has
dual nature i.e. radiation can behave as wave in one direction and as particle in the other
direction, because radiation is the wave which spread out over a space and also as a particle
which is located at a point in space. This concept can be explained as explained below,

Radiation such as X-rays, infrared, ultraviolet etc. behave as wave in experiment based on
interference, diffraction etc. this is due to the fact that the phenomena to occur two waves must
coexist at the same position at the same time. It’s very difficult for the two particles to occupy
the same position at the same time. Thus we conclude that radiation behave like wave.

Planck’s quantum theory was successful in explaining black body radiation, the photoelectric
effect, the Compton effect and had clear established that the radiant energy in its interactive with
matter behaves as though it consists of corpuscles. Here radiation interact with matter in the
forms of photons or quanta. Thus we conclude that the radiation behaves like particles.
Thus radiation can behave as wave at one time and as a particle at another time but not
simultaneously at the same time this proves wave particle duality.

28 | P a g e
HEISENBERG’S UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE

This principle was discovered by Heisenberg which was based on a moving particles. Heisenberg
states that a moving particle is regarded as De Broglie wave group rather than a localized entity.

According to classical mechanic’s sates that a moving particle has both a fixed position and
definite momentum that can be determined simultaneously with any desired accuracy and
precision.
Since a moving particle is regarded as a De Broglie wave group there is a limit of accuracy with
which the properties of a given particle can be measured.

According to Bon’s probability interpretation the particle can be found anywhere in a wave
group and the velocity is the same as wave group velocity.
Also in narrow wave group it is easy to locate the point of the particle and its uncertainty is
calculated in which the velocity and momentum increases and when the narrow is very large,
high uncertainty in calculating the exact value can be obtained.

The Heisenberg uncertainty principle states that, the simultaneous determination of exact
position and momentum is impossible.
From the above explanations, consider the following

If ∆𝑥 is the error in measurement of position in the x-axis direction and ∆𝑝 is the error in
momentum then can be written as

∆𝑥∆𝑝 = ℎ , where h is the planks constant which is equal to 6.625x10−34

The derivation of Heisenberg uncertainty principle

Consider the error in position measurement ∆𝑥 and error in k measurements ∆𝑘 in which their
product can be given as\

∆𝑥∆𝑘 = 1 ……………………………………………………..1
2𝜋
But ∆k can be given as ……………………………….2
⋋

When recalling the combined equation for energy in Planck’s and Einstein for the value of
wavelength is given as
ℎ
⋋= 𝑚𝑐 …………………………………………………………..3
2𝜋𝑚𝑣
Then from ∆𝑘 = ………………………………......4
ℎ

Resubstituting from equation 1

2𝜋𝑚𝑣
∆𝑥 = 1……………………………………………………5
ℎ

29 | P a g e
∆𝑥. 2𝜋𝑚𝑣 = ℎ , but mv=𝑝𝑥 ………………………………6
ℎ
∆𝑥. 𝑝𝑥 = 2𝜋 , but when 2𝜋 can be approximated as

cos 2𝜋=1 then this equation can be given as

∆𝑥𝑝𝑥 = ℎ , hence it is not possible to determine both the position and momentum of a particle
with coherent precision or accuracy

30 | P a g e
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