Chapter 40

Introduction to Quantum Physics

Need for Quantum Physics

Problems remained from classical mechanics that the special theory of relativity
didn’t explain.
Attempts to apply the laws of classical physics to explain the behavior of matter
on the atomic scale were consistently unsuccessful.
Problems included:
 Blackbody radiation
 The electromagnetic radiation emitted by a heated object

 Photoelectric effect
 Emission of electrons by an illuminated metal

Introduction
Quantum Mechanics Revolution

Between 1900 and 1930, another revolution took place in physics.

A new theory called quantum mechanics was successful in explaining the
behavior of particles of microscopic size.
The first explanation using quantum theory was introduced by Max Planck.
 Many other physicists were involved in other subsequent developments

Introduction
Blackbody Radiation

An object at any temperature is known to emit thermal radiation.

 Characteristics depend on the temperature and surface properties.
 The thermal radiation consists of a continuous distribution of wavelengths
from all portions of the em spectrum.
At room temperature, the wavelengths of the thermal radiation are mainly in the
infrared region.
As the surface temperature increases, the wavelength changes.
 It will glow red and eventually white.

Section 40.1
Blackbody Radiation, cont.

The basic problem was in understanding the observed distribution in the radiation
emitted by a black body.
 Classical physics didn’t adequately describe the observed distribution.
A black body is an ideal system that absorbs all radiation incident on it.
The electromagnetic radiation emitted by a black body is called blackbody
radiation.

Section 40.1
Blackbody Approximation

A good approximation of a black body is

a small hole leading to the inside of a
hollow object.
The hole acts as a perfect absorber.
The nature of the radiation leaving the
cavity through the hole depends only on
the temperature of the cavity.

Section 40.1
Blackbody Experiment Results

The total power of the emitted radiation increases with temperature.

 Stefan’s law (from Chapter 20):
P = A e T4
 The emissivity, e, of a black body is 1, exactly
The peak of the wavelength distribution shifts to shorter wavelengths as the
temperature increases.
 Wien’s displacement law
 maxT = 2.898 x 10-3 m . K

Section 40.1
Intensity of Blackbody Radiation, Summary

The intensity increases with increasing

temperature.
The amount of radiation emitted
increases with increasing temperature.
 The area under the curve
The peak wavelength decreases with
increasing temperature.

Section 40.1
Rayleigh-Jeans Law

An early classical attempt to explain blackbody radiation was the Rayleigh-

Jeans law.
2 ∂ c kBT
I (ë,T )=
ë4

At long wavelengths, the law matched experimental results fairly well.

Section 40.1
Rayleigh-Jeans Law, cont.

At short wavelengths, there was a

major disagreement between the
Rayleigh-Jeans law and experiment.
This mismatch became known as the
ultraviolet catastrophe.
 You would have infinite energy as
the wavelength approaches zero.

Section 40.1
Max Planck

1858 – 1847
German physicist
Introduced the concept of “quantum of
action”
In 1918 he was awarded the Nobel
Prize for the discovery of the quantized
nature of energy.

Section 40.1
Planck’s Theory of Blackbody Radiation
In 1900 Planck developed a theory of blackbody radiation that leads to an
equation for the intensity of the radiation.
This equation is in complete agreement with experimental observations.
He assumed the cavity radiation came from atomic oscillations in the cavity walls.
Planck made two assumptions about the nature of the oscillators in the cavity
walls.

Section 40.1
Planck’s Assumption, 1

The energy of an oscillator can have only certain discrete values En.
 En = n h ƒ
 n is a positive integer called the quantum number
 ƒ is the frequency of oscillation
 h is Planck’s constant

 This says the energy is quantized.

 Each discrete energy value corresponds to a different quantum state.
 Each quantum state is represented by the quantum number, n.

Section 40.1
Planck’s Assumption, 2
The oscillators emit or absorb energy when making a transition from one
quantum state to another.
 The entire energy difference between the initial and final states in the
transition is emitted or absorbed as a single quantum of radiation.
 An oscillator emits or absorbs energy only when it changes quantum states.
 The energy carried by the quantum of radiation is E = h ƒ.

Section 40.1
Energy-Level Diagram

An energy-level diagram shows the

quantized energy levels and allowed
transitions.
Energy is on the vertical axis.
Horizontal lines represent the allowed
energy levels.
The double-headed arrows indicate
allowed transitions.

Section 40.1
More About Planck’s Model

The average energy of a wave is the average energy difference between levels of
the oscillator, weighted according to the probability of the wave being emitted.
This weighting is described by the Boltzmann distribution law and gives the
probability of a state being occupied as being proportional to
e −E kBT where E is the energy of the state.

Section 40.1
Planck’s Model, Graph

Section 40.1
Planck’s Wavelength Distribution Function

Planck generated a theoretical expression for the wavelength distribution.

2∂ hc 2
I (ë,T )= 5 hc ëk T
ë e( B
−1 )
 h = 6.626 x 10-34 J.s
 h is a fundamental constant of nature.
At long wavelengths, Planck’s equation reduces to the Rayleigh-Jeans
expression.
At short wavelengths, it predicts an exponential decrease in intensity with
decreasing wavelength.
 This is in agreement with experimental results.

Section 40.1
Einstein and Planck’s Results

Einstein rederived Planck’s results by assuming the oscillations of the

electromagnetic field were themselves quantized.
In other words, Einstein proposed that quantization is a fundamental property of
light and other electromagnetic radiation.
This led to the concept of photons.

Section 40.1
Photoelectric Effect

The photoelectric effect occurs when light incident on certain metallic surfaces
causes electrons to be emitted from those surfaces.
 The emitted electrons are called photoelectrons.
 They are no different than other electrons.
 The name is given because of their ejection from a metal by light in the
photoelectric effect

Section 40.2
Photoelectric Effect Apparatus

When the tube is kept in the dark, the

ammeter reads zero.
When plate E is illuminated by light
having an appropriate wavelength, a
current is detected by the ammeter.
The current arises from photoelectrons
emitted from the negative plate and
collected at the positive plate.

Section 40.2
Photoelectric Effect, Results

At large values of V, the current

reaches a maximum value.
 All the electrons emitted at E are
collected at C.
The maximum current increases as the
intensity of the incident light increases.
When V is negative, the current drops.
When V is equal to or more negative
than Vs, the current is zero.
Photoelectric Effect Feature 1
Dependence of photoelectron kinetic energy on light intensity
 Classical Prediction
 Electrons should absorb energy continually from the electromagnetic
waves.
 As the light intensity incident on the metal is increased, the electrons
should be ejected with more kinetic energy.
 Experimental Result
 The maximum kinetic energy is independent of light intensity.
 The maximum kinetic energy is proportional to the stopping potential
(Vs).

Section 40.2
Photoelectric Effect Feature 2
Time interval between incidence of light and ejection of photoelectrons
 Classical Prediction
 At low light intensities, a measurable time interval should pass between
the instant the light is turned on and the time an electron is ejected from
the metal.
 This time interval is required for the electron to absorb the incident
radiation before it acquires enough energy to escape from the metal.
 Experimental Result
 Electrons are emitted almost instantaneously, even at very low light
intensities.

Section 40.2
Photoelectric Effect Feature 3
Dependence of ejection of electrons on light frequency
 Classical Prediction
 Electrons should be ejected at any frequency as long as the light intensity
is high enough.
 Experimental Result
 No electrons are emitted if the incident light falls below some cutoff
frequency, ƒc.
 The cutoff frequency is characteristic of the material being illuminated.
 No electrons are ejected below the cutoff frequency regardless of
intensity.

Section 40.2
Photoelectric Effect Feature 4

Dependence of photoelectron kinetic energy on light frequency

 Classical Prediction
 There should be no relationship between the frequency of the light and the electric
kinetic energy.
 The kinetic energy should be related to the intensity of the light.

 Experimental Result
 The maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons increases with increasing light
frequency.

Section 40.2
Photoelectric Effect Features, Summary
The experimental results contradict all four classical predictions.
Einstein extended Planck’s concept of quantization to electromagnetic waves.
All electromagnetic radiation of frequency ƒ from any source can be considered a
stream of quanta, now called photons.
Each photon has an energy E and moves at the speed of light in a vacuum.
 E = hƒ
A photon of incident light gives all its energy to a single electron in the metal.

Section 40.2
Photoelectric Effect, Work Function

Electrons ejected from the surface of the metal and not making collisions with
other metal atoms before escaping possess the maximum kinetic energy Kmax.
Kmax = hƒ – φ
 φ is called the work function of the metal.
 The work function represents the minimum energy with which an electron is
bound in the metal.

Section 40.2
Some Work Function Values

Section 40.2
Photon Model Explanation of the Photoelectric Effect

Dependence of photoelectron kinetic energy on light intensity

 Kmax is independent of light intensity.
 K depends on the light frequency and the work function.
Time interval between incidence of light and ejection of the photoelectron
 Each photon can have enough energy to eject an electron immediately.
Dependence of ejection of electrons on light frequency
 There is a failure to observe photoelectric effect below a certain cutoff
frequency, which indicates the photon must have more energy than the work
function in order to eject an electron.
 Without enough energy, an electron cannot be ejected, regardless of the fact
that many photons per unit time are incident on the metal in a very intense
light beam.
Photon Model Explanation of the Photoelectric Effect, cont.

Dependence of photoelectron kinetic energy on light frequency

 Since Kmax = hƒ – φ
 A photon of higher frequency carries more energy.
 A photoelectron is ejected with higher kinetic energy.
 Once the energy of the work function is exceeded

 There is a linear relationship between the maximum electron kinetic energy

and the frequency.

Section 40.2
Cutoff Frequency

The lines show the linear relationship

between K and ƒ.
The slope of each line is h.
The x-intercept is the cutoff frequency.
 This is the frequency below which
no photoelectrons are emitted.

Section 40.2
Cutoff Frequency and Wavelength
The cutoff frequency is related to the work function through ƒc = φ / h.
The cutoff frequency corresponds to a cutoff wavelength.
c hc
ëc = =
ƒc ö

Wavelengths greater than c incident on a material having a work function φ do

not result in the emission of photoelectrons.

Section 40.2
Arthur Holly Compton

1892 – 1962
American physicist
Director of the lab at the University of
Chicago
Discovered the Compton Effect
Shared the Nobel Prize in 1927

Section 40.3
The Compton Effect, Introduction

Compton and Debye extended Einstein’s idea of photon momentum.

The two groups of experimenters accumulated evidence of the inadequacy of the
classical wave theory.
The classical wave theory of light failed to explain the scattering of x-rays from
electrons.

Section 40.3
Compton Effect, Classical Predictions

According to the classical theory, em waves incident on electrons should:

 Have radiation pressure that should cause the electrons to accelerate
 Set the electrons oscillating
 There should be a range of frequencies for the scattered electrons.

Section 40.3
Compton Effect, Observations

Compton’s experiments showed that, at

any given angle, only one frequency of
radiation is observed.

Section 40.3
Compton Effect, Explanation

The results could be explained by treating the photons as point-like particles

having energy hƒ and momentum h ƒ / c.
Assume the energy and momentum of the isolated system of the colliding
photon-electron are conserved.
This scattering phenomena is known as the Compton effect.

Section 40.3
Compton Shift Equation

The graphs show the scattered x-rays

for various angles.
The shifted peak, λ’, is caused by the
scattering of free electrons.
h
ë ' − ëo = (1 − cos è )
mec

 This is called the Compton shift

equation.

Section 40.3
Compton Wavelength

The factor h/mec in the equation is called the Compton wavelength of the
electron and is
h
ëC = = 0.002 43 nm
mec

The unshifted wavelength, λo, is caused by x-rays scattered from the electrons
that are tightly bound to the target atoms.

Section 40.3
Photons and Waves Revisited

Some experiments are best explained by the photon model.

Some are best explained by the wave model.
We must accept both models and admit that the true nature of light is not
describable in terms of any single classical model.
The particle model and the wave model of light complement each other.
A complete understanding of the observed behavior of light can be attained only
if the two models are combined in a complementary matter.

Section 40.4
Louis de Broglie

1892 – 1987
French physicist
Originally studied history
Was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1929
for his prediction of the wave nature of
electrons

Section 40.5
Wave Properties of Particles

Louis de Broglie postulated that because photons have both wave and particle
characteristics, perhaps all forms of matter have both properties.
The de Broglie wavelength of a particle is
h h
ë= =
p mu

Section 40.5
Frequency of a Particle

In an analogy with photons, de Broglie postulated that a particle would also have
a frequency associated with it
E
ƒ=
h
These equations present the dual nature of matter:
 Particle nature, p and E
 Wave nature, λ and ƒ

Section 40.5
Complementarity

The principle of complementarity states that the wave and particle models of
either matter or radiation complement each other.
Neither model can be used exclusively to describe matter or radiation adequately.

Section 40.5
Davisson-Germer Experiment

If particles have a wave nature, then under the correct conditions, they should
exhibit diffraction effects.
Davisson and Germer measured the wavelength of electrons.
This provided experimental confirmation of the matter waves proposed by de
Broglie.

Section 40.5
Wave Properties of Particles

Mechanical waves have materials that are “waving” and can be described in
terms of physical variables.
 A string may be vibrating.
 Sound waves are produced by molecules of a material vibrating.
 Electromagnetic waves are associated with electric and magnetic fields.
Waves associated with particles cannot be associated with a physical variable.

Section 40.5
Electron Microscope

The electron microscope relies on the

wave characteristics of electrons.
Shown is a transmission electron
microscope
 Used for viewing flat, thin samples
The electron microscope has a high
resolving power because it has a very
short wavelength.
Typically, the wavelengths of the
electrons are about 100 times shorter
than that of visible light.

Section 40.5
Quantum Particle

The quantum particle is a new model that is a result of the recognition of the
dual nature of both light and material particles.
Entities have both particle and wave characteristics.
We must choose one appropriate behavior in order to understand a particular
phenomenon.

Section 40.6
Ideal Particle vs. Ideal Wave

An ideal particle has zero size.

 Therefore, it is localized in space.
An ideal wave has a single frequency and is infinitely long.
 Therefore, it is unlocalized in space.
A localized entity can be built from infinitely long waves.

Section 40.6
Particle as a Wave Packet

Multiple waves are superimposed so that one of its crests is at x = 0.

The result is that all the waves add constructively at x = 0.
There is destructive interference at every point except x = 0.
The small region of constructive interference is called a wave packet.
 The wave packet can be identified as a particle.

Section 40.6
Wave Envelope

The dashed line represents the envelope function.

This envelope can travel through space with a different speed than the individual
waves.

Section 40.6
Speeds Associated with Wave Packet

The phase speed of a wave in a wave packet is given by

v phase = ù
k

 This is the rate of advance of a crest on a single wave.

The group speed is given by

v g = dù
dk

 This is the speed of the wave packet itself.

Section 40.6
Speeds, cont.

The group speed can also be expressed in terms of energy and momentum.

dE d ⎛ p 2 ⎞ 1
vg = = ⎜ ⎟= (2p )= u
dp dp ⎝ 2m ⎠ 2m

This indicates that the group speed of the wave packet is identical to the speed of
the particle that it is modeled to represent.

Section 40.6
Electron Diffraction, Set-Up

Section 40.7
Electron Diffraction, Experiment
Parallel beams of mono-energetic electrons that are incident on a double slit.
The slit widths are small compared to the electron wavelength.
An electron detector is positioned far from the slits at a distance much greater
than the slit separation.

Section 40.7
Electron Diffraction, cont.

If the detector collects electrons for a

long enough time, a typical wave
interference pattern is produced.
This is distinct evidence that electrons
are interfering, a wave-like behavior.
The interference pattern becomes
clearer as the number of electrons
reaching the screen increases.

Section 40.7
Electron Diffraction, Equations

A maximum occurs when d sin è = më

 This is the same equation that was used for light.
This shows the dual nature of the electron.
 The electrons are detected as particles at a localized spot at some instant of
time.
 The probability of arrival at that spot is determined by finding the intensity of
two interfering waves.

Section 40.7
Electron Diffraction Explained
An electron interacts with both slits simultaneously.
If an attempt is made to determine experimentally which slit the electron goes
through, the act of measuring destroys the interference pattern.
 It is impossible to determine which slit the electron goes through.
In effect, the electron goes through both slits.
 The wave components of the electron are present at both slits at the same
time.

Section 40.7
Werner Heisenberg

1901 – 1976
German physicist
Developed matrix mechanics
Many contributions include:
 Uncertainty principle
 Received Nobel Prize in 1932

 Prediction of two forms of

molecular hydrogen
 Theoretical models of the nucleus

Section 40.8
The Uncertainty Principle

In classical mechanics, it is possible, in principle, to make measurements with

arbitrarily small uncertainty.
Quantum theory predicts that it is fundamentally impossible to make
simultaneous measurements of a particle’s position and momentum with infinite
accuracy.
The Heisenberg uncertainty principle states: if a measurement of the position
of a particle is made with uncertainty x and a simultaneous measurement of its
x component of momentum is made with uncertainty px, the product of the two
uncertainties can never be smaller than /2.
h
ΔxΔpx ≥
2

Section 40.8
Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle, Explained

It is physically impossible to measure simultaneously the exact position and exact

momentum of a particle.
The inescapable uncertainties do not arise from imperfections in practical
measuring instruments.
The uncertainties arise from the quantum structure of matter.

Section 40.8
Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle, Another Form

Another form of the uncertainty principle can be expressed in terms of energy

and time.
h
ΔE Δt ≥
2

This suggests that energy conservation can appear to be violated by an amount

E as long as it is only for a short time interval t.

Section 40.8
Uncertainty Principle, final

The Uncertainty Principle cannot be interpreted as meaning that a measurement

interferes with the system.
The Uncertainty Principle is independent of the measurement process.
It is based on the wave nature of matter.

Section 40.8