Lecture 6: QUANTUM OPTICS

 Stefan-Boltzmann’s law – Wien’s law

 Plank’s hypothesis of energy quantum
 Einstein’s theory of photon
 Photoelectric effect
 Compton’s scattering
Planck’s radiation law
 RADIATION OF BLACKBODY
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sUp_WZKZID4
A black-body is an idealised object which
absorbs and emits all radiation frequencies.
Near thermodynamic equilibrium, the
emitted radiation is closely described by
Planck's law and because of its dependence
on temperature, Planck radiation is said to
be thermal radiation, such that the higher
the temperature of a body the more
radiation it emits at every wavelength.
Planck radiation has a maximum intensity at
a wavelength that depends on the
temperature of the body. For example, at
room temperature (~300 K), a body emits
thermal radiation that is mostly infrared
 and invisible. At higher temperatures, the
body is bright yellow or blue-white and
emits significant amounts of short
wavelength radiation, including ultraviolet
 and even x-rays. This shift due to
temperature is called Wien's displacement
law.
STEFAN-BOLTZMANN LAW
WIEN LAW
 Plank’s hypothesis of energy quantum
• Black-body radiation, the idea that all objects emit energy in the form of
electromagnetic waves, could not be explained for many years.
• Max Planck explained this phenomenon by proposing that energy exists only as
discrete units; that is, the energy that is associated with the oscillations of charges
within atoms and molecules is quantized - it can only take on whole number
multiples of some minimum value. The minimum energy of any oscillation can be
determined by taking the product of Planck's constant and the frequency of
oscillation (Emin=hf). This theory became known as Planck's Quantum Hypothesis.
• The quantum hypothesis suggested by Max Planck in 1900, postulates
that light energy can only be emitted and absorbed in discrete bundles
called quanta. ... Energy, E, is described by the equation: E = nhf, where
n is an integer and h is Planck's constant, equal to 6.626068 × 10−34 (J-
s).

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=N1wBPDuhlZk
 EINSTEIN THEORY OF PHOTON
 In March 1905 , Einstein created the quantum theory of light, the idea that
light (and/or electromagnetic waves) is composed of particles called photons. ...
Later in 1905 came an extension of special relativity in which Einstein proved
that energy and matter are linked in the most famous relationship in physics:
E=mc2
- Light is composed of quantum particles - photons
-The energy of photon: E=hf=hc/λ=mc2
-The momentum of photon: p=h/λ=mc=E/c
-Rest mass of photon is equal to zero
Where h: Planck’s constant
f, λ: frequency & wavelength of light (or electromagnetic waves in general)
c: velocity of light in vacuum

 Einstein successfully employs his photon hypothesis for the analysis of

the photoelectric effect, a process in which electrons are ejected from a
metallic surface illuminated by light. For this work Einstein was given Nobel
prize in Physics in 1921.
 Wave-particle Duality for
Light and Matter
 In previous lectures we viewed “light” as a wave
(i.e. it causes interference and diffraction)

Surprise: In the early 1900’s, it was discovered that
light has “particle”-like properties in some situations!


Furthermore, “matter” (i.e., electrons, protons,
etc.) was found to exhibit “wave-like”
properties under certain circumstances
 These two discoveries revolutionized science
and technology.

What’s the evidence of the wave-particle duality?

 Photoelectric Effect (1)

Electrons in a metal are “bound” by the
energy , the “work function”. If you shine Binding
potential
light on a clean metal surface, electrons can
emerge  the light gives the electrons
enough energy (>  to escape.

perform the experiment in vacuum

measure the flow of emitted electrons with an
ammeter

 How will the current depend on I and f? We might expect:

 Increasing intensity I should increase the current. (By increasing the electric field E, the force on electrons, F = eE, is increased, causing more electrons to
be kicked out of the metal.)
 Increasing frequency f shouldn’t matter much. Perhaps a decrease in current due to rapid oscillations.
 With a weak light, there should be a time delay before current starts to flow (to build up enough energy)
 Photoelectric Effect (2)
Incident Light
(variable frequency f)
Collector
A 
 Experiment 1: Measure the maximum energy of
ejected electrons

Bias the “collector” with a negative charge to repel
ejected electrons

Increase negative bias voltage until flow of ejected
electrons decreases to zero. (Current
= 0 at V = Vstop)
Measurement of Vstop tells the max kinetic energy,
KEmax = eVstop.

electrons
+
Metal Surface V
vacuum

The Result:
The “stopping voltage” is independent of light intensity!
Therefore, increasing the intensity I does not increase KE !
 Photoelectric Effect (3)
 Experiment 2: Measure the maximum energy vs. f Incident Light
(variable frequency f)

3 Collector
Vstop (v)

2
A

1 f0
electrons
0 +
0 5 10 15
Metal Surface V
f (x1014 Hz) vacuum

The Results:
 Stopping voltage Vstop (and the maximum kinetic energy of electrons)
decreases with decreasing f (linear dependence).
 Below a certain frequency fo, no electrons are emitted, even for intense light!
Makes no sense classically: Increasing E should have an effect.
 Photoelectric Effect (4)
3

slope
Vstop (v)

h/e Collector
2

A
1 f0 1
0
0 5 10 15
electrons
+
f (x1014 Hz) V
Metal Surface
Summary of Results: vacuum
 Energy of electrons emitted depends on frequency, not intensity

 Electrons have a probability to be emitted immediately


Electrons are not ejected for frequencies below f0
h is Planck’s constant (measured here)
KE max  e  Vstop  hf  
 is the “work function”
Conclusion: Light comes in “packets” of energy Photons !
with Ephoton = hf h = 6.626 x 10-34 J • s
Increasing I simply increases # photons, not the photon energy.
 Convenient Units for Ephoton
Recall: For EM waves, frequency and wavelength are related by
f = c/. c = 2.9979 x 108 m/s

New result: Light comes in “packets” of energy Photons

h = 6.626 x 10-34 J • s
Ephoton = hf = hc/
hc = 1.986 x 10-25 J • m

 For light waves it is useful to define wavelength in nanometers (nm)

 For electrons it is useful to define energy in electron volts (eV).
 1 eV = energy an electron gains moving through a potential energy of
one volt = (1.6022 x 10-19 Coulomb)(1 volt) = 1.6022 x 10-19 Joules.

Example: A red photon with wavelength of 620 nm has an energy of 2 eV.

 Photoelectric Effect: Example
When light of wavelength  = 400 nm shines on a piece of lithium, the
stopping voltage of the electrons is Vstop = 0.21 V. What is the work
function of lithium?

What is the maximum wavelength that can cause the photoelectric

effect in lithium? Hint: What is Vstop at the maximum wavelength
(minimum frequency)?
 Photoelectric Effect: Example
When light of wavelength  = 400 nm shines on a piece of lithium, the
stopping voltage of the electrons is Vstop = 0.21 V. What is the work
function of lithium?
Solution:
 = hf - eVstop

= 3.1eV - 0.21eV

= 2.89 eV

What is the maximum wavelength that can cause the photoelectric

effect in lithium? Hint: What is Vstop at the maximum wavelength
(minimum frequency)?

Answer: max = 429 nm

 exercise 1
 Calculating the work function .
3.5

KE max  e  Vstop  hf   3

2.5

Vstop (v)
2
If f0 = 5.5 x 10 Hz, what is (h = 4.14 x 10
14 -15
1.5

eV•s) 1 f0
0.5

0
a) -1.3 V b) -5.5 eV c) +2.3 eV 0 5 10 15

f (x1014 Hz)
 Solution
 Calculating the work function ? 3.5

KE max  e  Vstop  hf   2.5

Vstop (v)
2

1.5
If f0 = 5.5 x 10 Hz, what is (h = 4.14 x 10
14 -15
eV•s) 1 f0
0.5

0
0 5 10 15

a) -1.3 V b) -5.5 eV c) +2.3 eV

f (x1014 Hz)

When Vstop = 0, hf0 =  = 4.1 x 10-15 eV•s x 5.5 x 1014 Hz = 2.3 eV

Physical interpretation of the work function:


 is the minimum energy needed to strip an electron from the metal.
is defined as positive and is usually given in eV units.




Not all electrons will leave with the maximum kinetic energy (due to losses)
 exercise 2: Counting photons
How do we reconcile this notion that light comes in ‘packets’ with
our view of an electromagnetic wave, e.g., from a laser??

Partially transmitting
Power input mirror

1. How many photons per second are emitted from a 1-mW laser (=635nm)?
a. 3 x 1010 s-1
b. 3 x 1015 s-1
c. 3 x 1020 s-1

2. Are more or fewer photons emitted by a cell phone (f = 830 MHz) at

the same power? (Cell phones actually emit 0.6 – 3W.)
 exercise 2: Counting photons
How do we reconcile this notion that light comes in ‘packets’ with
our view of an electromagnetic wave, e.g., from a laser??

Partially transmitting
Power input mirror

1. How many photons per second are emitted from a 1-mW laser (=635nm)?
a. 3 x 1010 s-1 hc 1240 eV-nm
E photon    2 eV
b. 3 x 1015 s-1  635 nm
Power output: P = (# photons/sec) x Ephoton
c. 3 x 10 20
s-1
P 10 3 J 1eV 1photon 15 1
(# photons/sec)    -19
  3.1  10 s
E photon s 1.6  10 J 2 eV
2. Are more or fewer photons emitted by a cell phone (f = 830 MHz) at
the same power? (Cell phones actually emit 0.6 – 3W.)
Rate ~  Ratecell  0.36 m 5
  cell   5.7  10
cell = c/f = 0.36 m Ratelaser laser 635  10 9 m
 Wave-Particle “Duality”
 We cannot classify EM radiation into distinct categories of “waves”
or “particles”.
 Light exhibits wave-like properties (interference) in certain
situations, and particle-like properties (trajectories) in others.
 We will see next lecture that in fact matter particles (like
electrons, protons, etc.) also can display both particle-like and
wave-like properties!

Important question we need to address:

 When should we expect to observe wave-like properties,
and when should we expect particle-like properties?

To help answer these questions, let’s consider 2 examples:

 What happens when many photons
encounter a slit pattern?
 Recall our result for 2-slit interference:


Classical view:


Quantum view: S1

S2

EM wave
(wavelength 

S1

S2

Photons
(wavelength h/p)
 Two Slit Interference:
 Question: what if we reduce the
source intensity so that only one
particle (photon) goes through
the pattern at a time?

S1

S2

Photons
(wavelength h/p)
 Two Slit Interference:
 Question: what if we reduce the
source intensity so that only one
particle (photon) goes through
the pattern at a time?

Exposure time
S1

S2

Photons
(wavelength h/p)

 Answer: Just like in the “optical image

formation”, given enough time, the
classical interference pattern will
gradually build up from a huge # of
seemingly random “events”!
 Two Slit Interference: Conclusions
1) Particles like photons (or electrons!) can produce interference patterns even
one at a time ! In fact, they only produce them one at a time.

In the limit of large numbers of particles, we recover the usual classical

picture – this is an example of the “correspondence principle”.

2) With one slit closed, image formed is simply a single-slit pattern --

we “know” (i.e., we have constrained) which way the particle “went”.

3) With both slits open, a particle must interfere “with itself” to

produce the observed two-slit interference pattern
 This amazing interference effect reflects, in a fundamental
way, our inability to know which slit the particle “went
through”. We can only state the probability that a particle
went through a particular slit.
 Supplementary Problem: Microwave photons


What’s the energy?
A microwave oven generates electromagnetic radiation at a frequency of 2.4 GHz. What is the energy of each
microwave photon?

Answer: 1.6 x 10-24 J

If this is a 625 Watt oven, at what rate does it produce photons?

Answer: 3.9 x 1026 photons/s

 Supplementary Problem: Microwave photons
 What’s the energy?
A microwave oven generates electromagnetic radiation at a frequency of 2.4 GHz. What is the energy of each
microwave photon?

Ephoton = hf = (6.626 x 10-34 J • s)(2.4 x 109 s-1)

= 1.6 x 10-24 J

If this is a 625 Watt oven, at what rate does it produce photons?

Microwave Energy / sec ond Power

Rate( photons / sec)  
Energy / photon E photon

Rate = (625 J/s)/(1.6 x 10-24 J/photon) = 3.9 x 1026 photons/s