Planck's Constant

PHOTOELECTRIC
EFFECT
34.1 THE
that electrons are emitted fr.
rom
it was discovered
Late in the nineteenth century,
frequency falls upon it. Thie
metal surface when light
of sufficiently high of incident radiation
a
effect. The trequency ion
known as the photoelectric threshold. Most solide
phenomenon is known as the photoelectric
above which the effect starts is of the spectrum althouph
when this value is in the ultraviolet region
emit electrons
Potassium (K),
and rubidium (Rb)
Cesium (CS) emit
some metals like sodium, (Na)
in visible and near ultraviolet region.
effects are:
The characteristics features of the Photoelectric
of the inten-
in the emitted electrons is independent
1. The energy distribution
on its frequency.
sity of light and depends only emitted
2. The number of photoelectrons
i.e., the photoelectric current is in-
incident light and depends only on its
dependent of the frequency of the
intensity. the metal surface and the
arrival of light at
3. There is no time lag between the
emission of photoelectrons.

34.2 PHOTOELECTRIC CELL

into electric energy. There are three

It is a device for converting light energy
cells:
types of photoelectric
1. Photo-conductive cell,
2. Photo-voltaic cell and
3. Photo-emissive cell,
In this chapter, we are mainly concerned with a photo-emissive cell.
bulb. It
A vacuum-type photo-emissive cell consists of a glass or a quartz
emissive
consists of a cathode in the form of a semi-cylindrical plate which has
10
coating of alkali metal such as sodium, potassium on the side facing the anode.
increase the efficiency of the photocell, composite materials such as caesium on silver
I3
oxide or antimonycaesium alloy are used as photo cathode materials. The Anode
in the form of a straight wire or a loop of wire of platinum.
The magnitude of the photocurrent in this type of photocell is small. To increa
it, the cell is filled with an inert gas like neon or argon at a pressure of a few mm
mercury. Such a cell 1s called 'a gas-filled photo cell.
Experiment 34.1 To determine the value of Planck's constant by using
photoelectric cell.
Apparatus: A vacuum type photoelectric cell mounted inside a wooden
supply, a
with a wide opening on the side opposite to the cathode, 6 Volt DC supply
ve moving
voltmeter (0-3 volt with a east count of 0.05 volt), a rheostat, a sensitive moving col
 Planck's Constant 433

galvanometer with lamp and scale arrangement, a key, a mercury lamp and few light
filters.
Theory: When a photon of energy hv is incident on the emissive surface ot
the cathode, almost all of its energy is transferred to the electron inside the metal. If
this energy is greater than the threshold energy Wa. the electron is emitted. W% is also
called the work function of the metal. Above the threshold frequency, corresponding
to the Wo (= hvg). photoelectrons have a range of energies from 0 to a certain
maximum value. and this maximum energy increases linearly with increasing
frequency. This is because, out of the total incident energy hv, a part W, is used up as
the threshold energy and the rest is stored in the electron as it's kinetic energy.

Thus hv =mvm +W%

Emax Wo (34.1)
This Eqn. is called the Einstein's Photoelectric Equation
As W remains constant for a given photoelectric cell, Emar Varies linearly with
max
the frequency.
In this experiment, to find out the maximum kinetic energy Emax Of the emitted
electrons, we reverse bias the photoelectric cell i.e., its anode is made negative. It,
therefore. repels the emitted electrons and the current decreases. The negative
potential on the anode is slowly increased till the stopping potential V, is reached,
when the current stops. When this happens

eV,max (34.2)
V, is called the stopping potential or the cut-offpotential because it just stops
the electrons from leaving the surface.
From (34.2) and (34.1), we have
hv =
eV, + Wo
eV, =hv-Wo
V,=v- (34.3)
e

Thus, if we make a graph with the frequency v along the x-axis and the stopping
h*
potential V, along the y-axis, it would be a straight line with slope equal to and
e

W
negative intercept on y-axis equal
to
e
Thus the Planck's constant h and the work function W, for a given photoelectric
cell can be determined.

Procedure
connections as shown in Fig. 541.C and Aare respectively the
1. Make the
cathode and anode of
the photocell.
in front the photocell and set the galva-
2. Arrange the mercury lamp just of
nometer so that
the spot moves freely.

* i s also called the photoelectric

constant.
 B.Sc. Practical Physics
434

Filter
Light(Mercury lamp)
A

-ww-0
Fig. 34.1

3. With no light falling on the photocell, insert the key in K,

adjust the voltage
in the voltmeter to zero and adjust in the
spot galvanometer to zero posi-
tion. Remove the key.
4. Fit the violet filter in front of the
photocell. Switch on the mercury lamp
and plug in the key. The
galvanometer will show deflection. Adjust the
position of the mercury lamp so as to get maximum deflection. Do not move
the lamp after this.
5. Increase the potential on anode
slowly by the rheostat. The deflection in the
galvanometer decrease. Go on increasing the negative potential applied to
anode till the spot of light in the
Note down the potential galvanometer comes back to zero position.
6. Repeat the observations and take three
Change the filter one by one from violetreadings
7. with the same filter.
to red and
8. Make a graph with repeat the experiment.
frequency of the filter v along x-axis and the
stopping
potential V, along y-axis.
Observations
Least count of the
voltmeter =
0.05 V
speed of light, c = 3x 10 m/sec
Filter Violet Blue
Green Yellow Red
Wavelength |4050 x 1070
Am) 4360x 10 5460 x 10-l0 5780 x 10106910 x 10-10
Frequency
C

Stopping 1
Potential 2
V, (volts) 3
Mean
 Planck's Constant 435

Calculations: The graph between the frequency

v along x-axis and the
stopping potential V, along
y-axis is a straight line as shown in Fig. 34.2.
AC
Slope of the line =
BC
B

e
slope Frequency v

Planck's constant h = e x slope D

=
10-x slope
1.6x
Fig. 34.2
. J sec.
Negative intercept on y-axis = OD = ... Volts
Work function Wo= OD eV
= ex OD Joule
= 1.6x 10-x OD Joule

Result: (i) The Planck's constant h = .... Joule sec

Actual value = ... Joule sec
% Error ..%
(i) Work function W for the given photoelectric cell = ...eV

Precautions and Sources of Error

1. Care should be taken that when no light is falling on the cathode,
to ensure
the deflection in the galvanometer is zero.
2. The position of the mercury lamp should not be changed during the
experiment.
3. Care should be taken to note down the stopping
potential. The voltage
across the photocell should be increased very slowly and three
readings
should be taken for each filter,

Weak Points
A sharp cut-off may not be obtained due to ionization of the residual air in the
cell and due to secondary emission and photoelectric emission from the anode A.

34.3 LIGHT EMITTING DIODES (LED'S)

The phenomenon of light emission by electrical excitation of a solid was first
observed in 1907 by H.J. Round using Silicon Carbide (SiC). This phenomenon is
called electro luminescence and isthe inverse of Einstein's well known photoelectric
effect. The effect can be seen in the light emitting diodes.
LED's or the Light Emitting Diodes' are special diodes that emit light when
connected in a circuit. LED's that emit visible light are widely used in instrument
display indicators, digital watches, caleulators ete. LED's that emit invisible infrared
light find applications in remote control schemes, object detectors, burglar alarm
systems etc.
 B.Sc. Practical Physics
436

34.4 CONSTRUCTION
case encloses a semiconductor chip. The two
transparent or a coloured epoxy
A
enclosure or the bulb indicate how the LED
wires extending below the LED epoxy
The negative side of an LED is
should be connected in the circuit (Fig. 34.3).
indicated in two ways:

1. by the flat side of the bulb and

2. by the shorter of the two wires extending from the LED.

Epoxy lens

Glass window

Metal can

LED chip Glass Insulator

Fig. 34.3
The negative lead should be
connected to the negative terminal of Emitted Light Recombination
the battery. The LED's operate at

relatively low voltages of about 1 to 3

volts, and draw current in the range of 5
to 20 milliamperes. Voltages and
currents substantially above these
values can melt the LED chip. n
IIINNNIIZNNNINIZIIDZ
A cross sectional view of a typical
LED is shown in Fig. 34.4 The p-n
Metal film cathode
junction is forward biased. The
recombination of charge carriers occur Fig. 34.4
in the p-region. So this region is
required to be kept at the top. Thus the p-region becomes the device surface. The
metal anode connections are made at the outer edge of p-layer so as to allow more
surface area for the light to come out. A metal film is applied to the bottom of n-layer
which acts as cathode and reflects back any light coming from this side.

34.5 ADVANTAGES

LED's have a number of advantages over ordinary incandescent lamps. The

operate at low voltage (0-3 V) and currents (5 to 20 mA) and thus consume very less
power (10-150 mW). They require no heating, no warm-up time and hence are ver
fast in action (response time 10 nanosecond). They are rugged in construction an
can withstand shock and vibrations and have long life.

34.6 WORKING
The most important part of an LED is the semi conductors chip located in the
Like in
centre of the bulb as shown in Fig. (34.3). The chip is a p-n junction diode.
 Planck's Constant 437

normal diodes, the junction acts as a barrier to the flow of electrons between the p
and n regions. When sufficient forward voltage is applied to the chip across the leads
of the LED, electrons can move easily in only one direction across the junction
between the p and n regions. Once an electron crosses the junction, it is immediately
attracted to the holes in the p region and recombines. Each time an electron
recombines with a positive hole, electric potential energy is converted into
electromagnetic ener8y. For each such recombination, a quantum of electromagnetic
energy is emitted in the form of a photon of light with a frequency characteristic of
the semiconductor material of the p-n diode. Only photons in a very narrow frequency
range are emitted by any material. LED's that emit different colours are made of
different semi-conductor materials, and require different energies to light them.
The different coloured LED's emit predominantly light of a single colour. The
electron
energy E of the light emitted by an LED is related to the electric charge of an
and the voltage V required to light the LED by the expression.
E = eV Joules
or hv =eV (34.4)
Here we have ignored a small amount of energy wasted in non-radiative recom-

binations.

34.7 SUITABLE MATERIALS FOR LED'S

for the light
Theprobability of radiative recombination process responsible
structure of the semiconductor.
emission by LED's depends primarily on the band
fulfill two requirements:
The material suitable for visible LED's should primarily
1.8 eV.
1. The band gap (E,) should be greater than
maximum of the valence band and
i.e. the
2. The band gap should be direct value of the
band should occur at the same
the minimum of the conduction
mechanical wave vector k.
quantum
is sensitive only to light
first condition is essentia! because the human eye of
The
than 1.8 eV (S0.7 um) and the energy
to greater
With a photon energy hv equal
or
of smaller
band So a semiconductor
of the gap.
the light emitted is equal to the energy
than the visible range.
would emit light of wavelength higher momentum and energy remain
gap
semiconductor (eg. GaAs)
In a direct band gap indirect band
In contrast, in an
constant during the process
of emission of photon. conservation

and germanium (Ge) momentum

s e m i c o n d u c t o r such as
silicon (Si) dominate in them.
gap nonradiative
transitions
emission and so invisible far-intrarea
s not poSsible in photon of Si or Ge emits
diode made and henec
that a normal visible range
This is the r e a s o n
emit light in the
materials like Ga As P and GaP
ght but the lasers are
based o n

are used in LED's.

available LEDs
and
semiconductor ctor
las
the
infrared
region
in
Almost all the currently to an
emission
emission
in tne
semiconductor GaP, the

of 1.43 eV corresponds indirect semiconu red-

GaAs, whose band gap with the light in the
near 900 n m .
When GaAs is
mixed
of bout 2 eV
about
gives
eV and givc emitted l hy
by
them
t hem

direct band gap colour of

light
s t r u c t u r e has a the
resulting materials and
region. A few LED
orange spectral
is listed in Table 34..
 Colour of light emitted
Red and infrared
Material (Al GaAs)
Arsenide
Alluminium gallium Green
Gallium Alluminium phosphate
(Al GaP)
Red, Orange,
Gallium Arsenide/Phosphide (GaAsP)
Green, Blue
Gallium Nitride Red, yellow, green
Gallium Phosphide (GaP)
Blue
Zinc Selenide Bluish green, Blue
Indium Gallium Nitride (In GaN)

Planck's Constant by usine

34.2 To determine the value of
Experiment:
light-emitting-diodes (LED's)
of emitting light of different wave-lengths
Apparatus: Visible LED's capable wires, etc.
voltmeter (0-3V), a millammeter, connecting
a battery (S volts), a rheostat, a
electron is excited by a voltage source of
Theory: As discussed earlier when an
ground
excites it from level to excited level. When
Vvolts, it gets energy eV which
recombines) this energy
the excited electron comes back to the ground level (or
wasted in the process of
appears as radiative energy. Some energy, however, may get
non-radiative recombination and hence we may write,
eV R+hv
where R is the energy lost in non-radiative recombination But R <<hv and may
be neglected
eV =hv
hc
or eV=

Hence. if a minimum voltage V given to an LED causes it to glow with light of

wavelength A, then a plot of V along y-axis and along x-axis is a straight line with

slope equal to hc from which the Planck's constant h can be determined.

e

Procedure
1. Make the circuit asshown in Fig. 34.5. A rheostat is used as a potential
divider to change the voltage across the LED. A voltmeter and millammeter
connected in the circuit give respectively the voltage across the LED and
the current through it. Different LED's capable of emitting light of differ-
ent colour are connected as shown in figure and can be incorporated into
the circuit one by one by
connecting the point O to 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 turn by
turn.
2. Keep the sliding contact of the rheostat towards the P end. Switch on the
power supply and connect O with 1. Increase the voltage across the
diou
by slowly moving the sliding contact towards Q. Note down the voltage
across the diode and current I
through it. Plot the /-V curve as shown
Fig. (34.6) and note down the turn on voltage V at which the current s t
ju
 Planck's Constant 439

(ma
5V DC LED'S

Q
Fig. 34.5

Green Blue Violet

Red Yellow

Vo

2
//
V(Volts)
Fig. 34.6

increases from This is the minimum voltage at which the LED just
zero.

starts to glow. Note

also the colour of the light.
O with 2, 3,4, 5, one by one and repeat the step
3. Disconnect 1 and connect
2 and note down, the turn-on voltage V and the colour of light.
(minimum frequency) of the light emit
4. Find the maximum wavelength values from
the different LED's by spectrometer", or simply take the
ted by
the table (34.2).
r-axis and the turn-on voltage V, along y-axis.
with 1/2, along
5. Plot graph
a
line.
It will be a straight hc
is equal to where c is the speed of light
of the above graph
6. The slope e
Calculate h from the slope
and e is the electronic charge.

at the
curve just by looking
found without plotting the I-V
V be the voltage Vat
would be difficult to find
can
1. The turn on voltage cause error as it
would
But this
diode carefully.
begins to glow. the wavelength with
the help of
which LED just room to determine
in a dark
Perform the experiment whose maximum gives max
2. observed
A band will be
spectrometer.
440 B.Sc. Practical Physics

Table 34.2

Light emitted m(nm)

by diode

Red 695
Yellow 590
Green 570
Blue 472
Violet 432

Observations
S. No Colour of Light 1/ V
emitted (nm) (X 10m') (Volts)

Calculations: Calculate the slope of the straight line in Fig. 34.7.

Slope = =... Vm

h =
C
x slope
... J.sec
where e = 1.6022 x 10-C
and c 2.998x 10 m/s.
Result: The experimentally determined
value of the Planck's constant = ... J sec
Actual value
1/Am(m)
= 6.626 x 10* J sec
Fig. 34.7
% Error = ...

Precautions and sources of error

1. The current through the LED
should not increase the
2. The turn on voltage
Vo should be noted very
prescribed limit.
3. The voltmeter and the millimeter carefully.
should be free from
any errors.
Weak Points
It is difficult to obtain the exact value
of the turn-on
due to voltage. Also the energy lost
non-radiation recombinations is different for different
be introduced in the determination of Am Because of these LED's. An eror can also
Planck's constant as determined by this method is not reasons, the value of tne
expected to be very accurate onc:
 QUESTIONS FOR VIVA|
Define Planck's constant. What is its value?
Ans. The fundamental constant equal to the ratio of the energy of a quantum of energY

to its frequency, i s called Planck's constranti.e. h =

Its value is 6.626 x 10 Js.

Q. Are these methods accurate for the determination of h?
Ans. No, there are several inaccuracies in both the methods. But they are reasonably
correct to give an approximate value of h.
Q. Define photoelectric effect.
electromagnetic ra-
Ans. The liberation of electrons from a metal surface exposed to

diation is called photoelectric effect.

Q. On what factors do these depend?
() number of electrons emitted per unit area, and
(i) the kinetic energy of thee emitted electrons.
Ans. The number of electrons emitted per unit area depends on the intensity ofinci
electrons depends on the
dent radiation and the kinetic energy of the emitted
frequency of incident radiation.
from normal pn-diodes?
Q. What are LED's? How are they different
LED's
Q. What are the common materials for
emit light?
Q. Why don't Si and Ge diodes
band gap i.e.. the minimum of the conduction
Ans. Because Si and Ge have an indirect
band are not at the same value of the wave
band and the maximum of the valence
vector k. This is why
radiative transitions are very rare in these.

are the operating voltages

for LED's?
Q. What
Ans. 0-3V
and working of a light emitting diode.
Q. Give the construction maximum value of the wavelength i.e.. 2 for
the
Q. Why do we measure max

LED's?
Corresponds to min or minimum energy which corresponds to the
Ans. Because a
tum-on voltage Vo
thus mineV

hc
= eVo
or
ma
and non radiative recombinations?
Q. What are radiative
Ans. When an electron and a hole recombine, energy is released. When this energy is
emitted as radiation, the recombination is called radiative recombination. In
some cases known as non-radiatnve recombinations, this energy is given to the

lattice and no radiation is emitted.