Unit- 3

3. Bipolar Junction Transistor:

A bipolar junction transistor (BJT) is a three terminal, two junction electronic

devices that is used to switch or amplify electronic signals and electric power. It is
a current controlled device. It is a type of transistor (invented by William Shockley
in 1947) that uses both electron and hole charge carriers.

3.1Terminals of the BJT:

Emitter:

Emitter is heavily doped so that it can inject a large number of charge carriers into
the base. The size of the emitter is always greater than the base.

Base:

The middle layer is called base. It is very lightly doped. The base of the transistor
is very thin as compared to emitter and collector.

Collector:

The function of the collector is to collect charge carriers. It is moderately doped.

That is the doping level of the collector section is in between emitter and base. The
size of the collector is always greater than emitter and base. The collector area in
the transistor is considerably larger than the emitter area. This is because the
collector region has to handle more power than the emitter does and more surface
area is required for heat dissipation.
3.2. Transistor Biasing:
Biasing is controlling the operation of the circuit by providing power supply. The
function of both the PN junctions is controlled by providing bias to the circuit
through some dc supply. The figure below shows how a transistor is biased.

The N-type material is provided negative supply and P-type material is given
positive supply to make the circuit Forward bias.
The N-type material is provided positive supply and P-type material is given
negative supply to make the circuit Reverse bias.
The direction of current indicated in the circuits above, also called as
the Conventional Current, is the movement of hole current which is opposite to
the electron current.

3.3 Types of Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJTs):

Bipolar junction transistors are classified into two types based on their
construction-
 I. NPN transistor

II. PNP transistor

I.NPN transistor:

When a single p-type semiconductor layer is sandwiched between two n-type

semiconductor layers, the transistor is said to be an npn transistor

Construction of NPN:

Fig.-NPN

The npn transistor is made up of three semiconductor layers: one p-type

semiconductor layer and two n-type semiconductor layers. The npn transistor has
two p-n junction. One junction is formed between the emitter and the base. This
junction is called emitter-base junction or emitter junction. The other junction is
formed between the base and the collector. This junction is called collector-base
junction or collector junction.

NPN Transistor Operation-

In following figure, emitter-base junction is forward biased and collector-base
junction is reverse biased.
The voltage VEE provides a negative potential at the emitter which repels the
electrons in the N-type material and these electrons cross the emitter-base
junction, to reach the base region. There a very low percent of electrons
recombine with free holes of P-region. This provides very low current which
constitutes the base current IB. The remaining holes cross the collector-base
junction, to constitute the collector current IC.
As an electron reaches out of the collector terminal, and enters the positive
terminal of the battery, an electron from the negative terminal of the
battery VEE enters the emitter region. This flow slowly increases and the electron
current flows through the transistor.
Hence we can understand that −

 The conduction in a NPN transistor takes place through electrons.

 The collector current is higher than the emitter current.
 The increase or decrease in the emitter current affects the collector current.

NPN transistor symbol:

Symbol-NPN
Electric current always flows from p-region to n-region. In npn transistor, the
electric current is majorly conducted by free electrons.

II.PNP transistor:

When a single n- type semiconductor layer is sandwiched between two p-type

semiconductor layers, a pnp transistor is formed.

PNP transistor construction:

Fig.-PNP

The pnp transistor has two p-n junction. One junction is formed between the
emitter and the base. This junction is called emitter-base junction or emitter
junction. The other junction is formed between the base and the collector. This
junction is called collector-base junction or collector junction.

Operation PNP Transistor-

The operation of a PNP transistor can be explained by having a look at the
following figure, in which emitter-base junction is forward biased and collector-
base junction is reverse biased.
The voltage VEE provides a positive potential at the emitter which repels the holes
in the P-type material and these holes cross the emitter-base junction, to reach the
base region. There a very low percent of holes recombine with free electrons of N-
region. This provides very low current which constitutes the base current IB. The
remaining holes cross the collector-base junction, to constitute collector
current IC, which is the hole current.
As a hole reaches the collector terminal, an electron from the battery negative
terminal fills the space in the collector. This flow slowly increases and the
electron minority current flows through the emitter, where each electron entering
the positive terminal of VEE, is replaced by a hole by moving towards the emitter
junction. This constitutes emitter current IE.
Hence we can understand that −

 The conduction in a PNP transistor takes place through holes.

 The collector current is slightly less than the emitter current.
 The increase or decrease in the emitter current affects the collector current.

Symbol:
 Symbol-PNP

Electric current always flows from p-region to n-region. In pnp transistor, the
electric current is majorly conducted by holes.

3.4 Advantages
There are many advantages of a transistor such as −

 High voltage gain.

 Lower supply voltage is sufficient.
 Most suitable for low power applications.
 Smaller and lighter in weight.
 Mechanically stronger than vacuum tubes.
 No external heating required like vacuum tubes.
 Very suitable to integrate with resistors and diodes to produce ICs.
There are few disadvantages such as they cannot be used for high power applications
due to lower power dissipation. They have lower input impedance and they are
temperature dependent.

3.5 BJT operation modes:

The transistor can be operated in three modes:

I. Active mode

II. Saturation mode

III. Cut-off mode

The other region of operation of BJT is called as inverse active region.

In order to operate transistor in one of these regions, we have to supply dc voltage
to the npn or pnp transistor. Applying dc voltage to the transistor is nothing but the
biasing of transistor.

I. Transistor in active region:

Active region is one in which Base emitter junction is forward biased and Base
Collector junction will be reverse biased in a transistor.

The currents flowing through the three terminals of BJT are:

Emitter current : A forward current flows from emitter into base consisting of
electrons and hole current flowing from base to emitter.

Base current : A recombination current flows from the base which in the external
circuit appears as base current supplied by power supply which is exactly equal to
the rate at which charge carriers (holes) are lost in base due to recombination. This
current will be small as base is lightly doped and numbers of charge carriers are
less.

Collector current: The collector current consists of two components-

a) Reverse saturation current through reverse biased base collector junction. The
base collector junction can be thought of as reverse biased diode.
b) The emitter current left after recombination base current flows into collector.

Note-The active mode of operation is used for the amplification of current.

Amplifying in Active Mode
Active mode is the most powerful mode of the transistor because it turns the device
into an amplifier. Shorthand notation for the gain (amplification factor) of a
transistor is β.

β linearly relates the collector current (IC) to the base current (IB):

The actual value of β varies by transistor. It's usually around 100.

To relate the emitter current to collector current, we have another constant
value: α. α is the common-base current gain, it relates those currents as such:

α is usually very close to, but less than, 1. That means IC is very close to, but less
than IE in active mode.
Relation between α & β:-

If β is 100, for example, that means α is 0.99. So, if IC is 100mA, for example, then
IE is 101mA

II.Transistor in Saturation region-

Saturation region is one in which both Emitter Base and Base Collector
junctions of the transistor are forward biased.
The figure below shows a transistor working in saturation region.
The saturation mode of the transistor is used in switching operation for switch
ON application.

In saturation mode both of the "diodes" in the transistor are forward biased.

III.Transistor in Cutoff region:

In this region both junctions of the transistor are reverse biased.

In reverse bias condition, no current flows through the device. Hence, no current
flows through the transistor. Therefore, the transistor is in off state and acts like an
open switch.

The following figure shows a transistor working in cutoff region.

As in cutoff region, the collector current, emitter current and base currents are nil,
we can write as

The cutoff mode of the transistor is used in switching operation for switch
OFF application.
IV. Reverse active mode:

The reverse active mode is just opposite to the active mode because in this mode of
operation the emitter-base junction is reverse biased while the collector-base
junction is forward biased. Transistor is never operated in reverse active mode.

3.6. Current components of BJT:

In transistor electric current is carried by both free electrons and holes. The
direction of holes is assumed as same as the direction of the current.

Collector current-

Ic= αIE+ICO

Exact equation-

Ic= βIB+(1+β)ICO

IE= Ic+IB

Relationship between DC Currents and Gains:

3.7. Transistor Characteristics-
The graph representing the relationships between the current and the voltage of any
transistor of any configuration is called Transistor Characteristics. There are
following types of characteristic curves:-

I. Input Characteristics: The curve describes the changes in the values of

input current with the variation in the values of input voltage keeping the
output voltage constant.
II. Output Characteristics: The curve is got by plotting the output current
against output voltage keeping the input current constant.

Operating point
When a value for the maximum possible collector current is considered, that point
will be present on the Y-axis, which is nothing but the saturation point. As well,
when a value for the maximum possible collector emitter voltage is considered,
that point will be present on the X-axis, which is the cutoff point.
When a line is drawn joining these two points, such a line can be called as Load
line. This line, when drawn over the output characteristic curve, makes contact at
a point called as Operating point.
This operating point is also called as quiescent point or simply Q-point. There
can be many such intersecting points, but the Q-point is selected in such a way
that irrespective of AC signal swing, the transistor remains in active region.
The load line has to be drawn in order to obtain the Q-point. A transistor acts as a
good amplifier when it is in active region and when it is made to operate at Q-
point, faithful amplification is achieved.
Faithful amplification is the process of obtaining complete portions of input
signal by increasing the signal strength. This is done when AC signal is applied at
its input.

DC Load line:
When the transistor is given the bias and no signal is applied at its input, the load
line drawn at such condition can be understood as DC condition. Here there will
be no amplification as the signal is absent. The circuit will be as shown below.

The value of collector emitter voltage at any given time will be

As VCC and RC are fixed values, the above one is a first degree equation and hence
will be a straight line on the output characteristics. This line is called as D.C.
Load line. The figure below shows the DC load line.
To obtain the load line, the two end points of the straight line are to be
determined. Let those two points be A and B.

To obtain A

When collector emitter voltage VCE = 0, the collector current is maximum and is
equal to VCC/RC. This gives the maximum value of VCE. This is shown as

This gives the point A (OA = VCC/RC) on collector current axis, shown in the
above figure.

To obtain B
When the collector current IC = 0, then collector emitter voltage is maximum and
will be equal to the VCC. This gives the maximum value of IC. This is shown as

(As IC = 0)
This gives the point B, which means (OB = VCC) on the collector emitter voltage
axis shown in the above figure.
Hence we got both the saturation and cutoff point determined and learnt that the
load line is a straight line. So, a DC load line can be drawn.

III.Current Transfer Characteristics: This characteristic curve describes the

variation of output current in accordance with the input current, keeping the output
voltage constant.

3.8. Transistor i-v characteristics:

Common emitter BJT circuit for determining output characteristics-

The plot indicates the four regions of operation: the saturation, the cutoff, the
active and the breakdown. Each family of curves is drawn for a different base
current and in this plot IB 4> IB3 >IB2 >IB1
The characteristics of each region of operation are summarized below.

I. Cutoff region:

 Base-emitter junction is reverse biased.

 No current flow.

II. Saturation region:

 Base-emitter junction forward biased.

 Collector-base junction is forward biased.
 Ic reaches a maximum which is independent of IB and β.
 No control.
 V CE < V BE

III. Active region:

 Base-emitter junction forward biased.

 Collector-base junction is reverse biased.
 Control, IC = β IB
  VBE < VCE < VCC

IV. Breakdown region:

 IC and VCE exceed specifications.

 Damage to the transistor.

3.9. Description of Early effect or Base width modulation:-

When the reverse biasing voltage across the collector junction is increased, the
effective base width reduces. This modulation of base width by collector voltage is
called early effect.

Consequences of Early effect

Early effect has three main consequences

 The emitter current increases with increase in collector voltage.
 As effective base width decreases there is less chance for recombination and
base current decreases as reverse bias increases. The base current is
recombination current. Hence beta current gain of common emitter transistor
increases. This increase in beta will increase the collector current.
 As we increase further the reverse bias voltage at some point effective base
width approaches zero and transistor will breakdown. This phenomenon is
called reach through or punch through.

3.10. Configuration of Transistor:

The three types of transistor circuit configurations are:

I. Common Emitter Transistor

II. Common Base Transistor
III. Common Collector Transistor (emitter follower).
Each of these three circuit configurations has its own characteristics curve.

I. Common Emitter (CE) Configuration of Transistor:

In common emitter configuration, base is the input terminal, collector is the output
terminal, and emitter is the common terminal. The emitter terminal is grounded in
the common emitter configuration. So the common emitter configuration is also
known as grounded emitter configuration.

Common Emitter (CE) Configuration of Transistor

The transistor characteristic under Common Emitter configuration is as

follows:

Transistor Definition Formula/Expres Characteristic Curve

Character sion
istics

Input The variation of Rin=ΔVBE/ΔIB

Character emitter current
VCE=Constant
istics (IB) with Base-
Emitter voltage
(VBE), keeping
Collector Emitter
voltage (VCE)
constant.
Output The variation of Rout=ΔVCE/ΔIC
Character collector
IB=Constant
istics current(IC) with
Collector-Emitter
voltage (VCE),
keeping the base
current (IB)
constant.

Current The variation of α=ΔIC/ΔIB

Transfer collector
current(IC) with VCB=Constant
Character
the base current
istics
(IB), keeping
Collector-Emitter
voltage (VCE)
constant.
The resulting
current gain has a
value greater than
1.

 This configuration provides good current gain and voltage gain.

 This configuration is usually used for bias stabilization methods and audio
frequency applications.

II.Common Base (CB) Configuration of Transistor:

In common base configuration, emitter is the input terminal, collector is the output
terminal, and base is the common terminal. The base terminal is grounded in the
common base configuration. So the common base configuration is also known as
grounded base configuration.
 Common Base (CB) Configuration of Transistor

The transistor characteristic under Common Base configuration is as follows:

Transisto Definition Formula/Exp Characteristic Curve

r ression
Characte
ristics

Input The variation of RIN=ΔVBE/ΔIE

Characte emitter current (IE)
VCB=Constant
ristics with Base-Emitter
voltage (VBE), keeping
Collector Base voltage
(VCB) constant.

Output The variation of ROUT=ΔVCB/Δ

Characte collector current(IC) IB
ristics with Collector-Base
IE=Constant
voltage (VCB), keeping
the emitter current (IE)
constant.
Current The variation of α=ΔIC/ΔIB
Transfer collector current(IC)
with the emitter current VCB=Constant
Characte
(IE), keeping Collector
ristics
Base voltage (VCB)
constant.
The resulting current
gain has a value less
than 1.

 This configuration provides voltage gain but no current gain.

 This Configuration provides good stability against increase in temperature.
 The CB configuration is used for high frequency applications.

III. Common Collector (CC) Configuration of Transistor:

In common collector configuration, base is the input terminal, emitter is the output
terminal, and collector is the common terminal. The collector terminal is grounded
in the common collector configuration. So the common collector configuration is
also known as grounded collector configuration.

Common Collector (CC) Configuration of Transistor

The transistor characteristic under Common Collector configuration is as

follows:

Transistor Definition Characteristic Curve

Characterist
ics

Input The variation of emitter current

Characterist (IB) with Collector-Base
ics voltage(VCB).

Output The variation of emitter current

Characterist (IE) with Collector-Emitter voltage
ics (VCE), keeping the base current
(IB) constant.

Current The variation of Emitter current

Transfer (IE) with the base current (IB),
Characterist keeping Collector-Emitter voltage
ics (VCE) constant.

 This configuration provides current gain but no voltage gain.

  In CC configuration, the input resistance is high and the output resistance is
low.
 The voltage gain provided by this circuit is less than 1.
 The sum of collector current and base current equals emitter current.
 The input and output signals are in phase.
 This configuration works as non-inverting amplifier output.
 This circuit is mostly used for impedance matching. That means, to drive a
low impedance load from a high impedance source.

Comparison of Transistor Configuration:

3.11.Ebers-Moll Model of BJT:

Ebers-Moll Model is an ideal transistor model which describes the operating

regions (states) of a transistor. This model is very useful to obtain the information
about DC characteristics of a transistor. The transistor operates in active region
when emitter junction is forward biased and collector junction is reverse biased.
This model generalizes the behavior of transistor by taking into account the
inverted mode of operation of transistor.
The dependence of the currents in a transistor upon the junction voltages, or vice-
versa may be obtained by

For the Inverted mode of operation,

Where, αi is the inverted Common-base current gain

IEO is the emitter junction reverse saturation current.

Ve is the voltage drop from P-side to N-side.

EBERS -MOLL MODEL FOR A PNP TRANSISTOR :

The above figure shows the Ebers-moll model for a PNP Bipolar Junction
Transistor (BJT). It involves two ideal diodes placed back to back with reverse
saturation currents -Ieo and -Ico and two dependent current controlled
current sources shunting the ideal diodes. This model is valid for both forward and
reverse biased static voltages applied across the transistor junctions.

3.12. Photodiode:
A photodiode is a p-n junction device that consumes light energy to generate
electric current. It is also sometimes referred as photo-detector, photo-sensor, or
light detector.

Photodiodes are specially designed to operate in reverse bias condition.Photodiode

is designed to generate more number of charge carriers in depletion region. In
photodiodes, we use light or photons as the external energy to generate charge
carriers in depletion region.

Working of Photodiode

The working principle of a photodiode is, when a photon of ample energy strikes
the diode, it makes a couple of an electron-hole. This mechanism is also called as
the inner photoelectric effect. If the absorption arises in the depletion region
junction, then the carriers are removed from the junction by the inbuilt electric
field of the depletion region. Therefore, holes in the region move toward the anode,
and electrons move toward the cathode, and a photocurrent will be generated.
Modes of Operation

The operating modes of the photodiode include three modes, namely Photovoltaic
mode, Photoconductive mode and avalanche diode mode

Photovoltaic Mode:
This mode is also known as zero bias mode, in which a voltage is produced by the
lightened photodiode. It gives a very small dynamic range & non-linear necessity
of the voltage formed.
Photoconductive Mode:
The photodiode used in this photoconductive mode is more usually reverse biased.
The reverse voltage application will increase the depletion layer‟s width, which in
turn decreases the response time & the junction capacitance. This mode is too
fast and displays electronic noise
Avalanche Diode Mode:
Avalanche diodes operate in a high reverse bias condition, which permits
multiplication of an avalanche breakdown to each photo-produced electron-hole
pair. This outcome in an internal gain in the photodiode, which slowly increases
the device response.

Photodiode symbol:

The arrows striking the diode represent light or photons. A photodiode has two
terminals:

i. cathode and
ii. anode.
Objectives and limitations of photodiode:

 Photodiode should be always operated in reverse bias condition.

 Generate low noise

 High gain

 High response speed

 High sensitivity to light

 Low sensitivity to temperature

The different types of photodiodes are-

 PN junction photodiode

 PIN photodiode

 Avalanche photodiode

Photodiode applications:

The various applications of photodiodes are-

1. Compact disc players

2. Smoke detectors

3. Space applications

4. Photodiodes are used in medical applications such as computed tomography,

instruments to analyze samples, and pulse oximeters.

5. Photodiodes are used for optical communications.

6. Photodiodes are used to measure extremely low light intensities.

 3.13. Solar Cell:

Solar Cell converts light energy into the electric energy. A solar cell is basically a
p-n junction diode. It utilizes photovoltaic effect to convert light energy into
electrical energy.

Solar Cell Symbol:

Construction and Working of Solar Cell:

Fig- Solar Cell Construction

As shown in the given diagram the solar cell is like an ordinary diode. It consists of
silicon, germanium PN junction with a glass windows on the top surface layer of
P-Type, the P-Type material is made very thin and wide so that the incident light
photon may easily reach to PN junction. When light reaches the p-n junction, the
light photons can easily enter in the junction, through very thin p-type layer. The
light energy, in the form of photons, supplies sufficient energy to the junction to
create a number of electron-hole pairs. In this way free electrons and holes are
generated on both sides of the junction. Due to these electrons and holes current
are produces. This current is directly proportional to the illumination‟s and also
depends on the size of the surface area being illuminated.

V-I Characteristics of a Photovoltaic Cell

Materials Used in Solar Cell:

1. Silicon.
2. GaAs.
3. CdTe.
4. CuInSe2

Criteria for Materials to be used in Solar Cell

1. Must have band gap from 1ev to 1.8ev.

2. It must have high optical absorption.
3. It must have high electrical conductivity.
4. The raw material must be available in abundance and the cost of the material
must be low.

Advantages of Solar Cell

1. No pollution associated with it.

2. It must last for a long time.
3. No maintenance cost.

Disadvantages of Solar Cell

1. It has high cost of installation.

2. It has low efficiency.
3. During cloudy day, the energy cannot be produced and also at night we will
not get solar energy.
Uses of Solar Generation Systems

1. It may be used to charge batteries.

2. Used in light meters.
3. It is used to power calculators and wrist watches.
4. It can be used in spacecraft to provide electrical energy.
 Unit- 4
4.1. MOS capacitor:
MOS stands for Metal oxide semiconductor. An MOS capacitor is made of a
semiconductor body or substrate, an insulator and a metal electrode called a gate.
Practically the metal is a heavily doped n+ poly-silicon layer which behaves as a
metal layer. The dielectric material used between the capacitor plates is silicon
dioxide (SiO2). The metal acts as one plate of the capacitor and the semiconductor
layer which may be n-type or p-type acts as another plate.

The capacitance of the MOS capacitor depends upon the voltage applied on the
gate terminal. Usually the body is grounded when the gate voltage is applied.
The flat band voltage is an important term related to the MOS capacitor. It is
defined as the voltage at which there is no charge on the capacitor plates and hence
there is no static electric field across the oxide. An applied positive gate voltage
larger than the flat band voltage (Vgb > Vfb) then positive charge is induced on the
metal (poly silicon) gate and negative charge in the semiconductor. The only
negative charged electrons are available as negative charges and they accumulate
at the surface. This is known as surface accumulation.