Dual nature of Radiation and Matter

Radiation and matter exhibit dual nature (wave nature and particle nature). In this chapter
we are focussing on the particle nature of radiation and the wave like characteristics exhibited
by the matter.
Radiation is the energy that gets transmitted in the form of waves or particles through free
space or through a material medium. Visible light, UV light, IR radiation etc. are different
forms of electromagnetic radiation.
Reflection, Refraction, Interference, Diffraction, Polarisation and Photoelectric effect are
some of the important phenomena exhibited by radiation (light).
In interference, Diffraction and Polarisation light behaves as a wave where as in photoelectric
effect light exhibits its quantum nature. To explain reflection and refraction of light either
particle or wave nature of light can be considered.

Electron emission
Metals are preferred for electron emission, the reason being abundance of free electrons in
metals. The process of liberation of electrons from a metal surface is called electron emission.
To liberate an electron from the metal surface a certain minimum energy is required.
The minimum energy required to free an electron from the surface of a metal is called work
function ( ∅𝑜 ) of the metal. Its value depends on properties of the metal and nature of its
surface.
Work function is measured in electron volt (eV). One electron volt is the energy gained by an
electron when it has been accelerated by a potential difference of 1volt. So,
𝟏𝒆𝑽 = 𝟏. 𝟔𝟎𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟗 𝑱
The work function of platinum is the highest (5.65𝑒𝑉) while it is the lowest (2.14𝑒𝑉) for
caesium.
There are different ways in which minimum energy can be supplied to free the electrons from
the surface of a metal. The three important types of electron emission are
(a) Thermionic emission: When a metal is heated to a very high temperature, electrons
are liberated from it. Here liberated electrons are called thermions.
(b) Field emission: By applying a very strong electric field to a metal, electrons can be
pulled out of it.
(c) Photo electron emission: When light of suitable frequency illuminates a metal surface,
electrons are emitted from it. These electrons are called photoelectrons.

Photoelectric effect
The phenomenon of photoelectric effect was discovered by Hertz in 1887.
The phenomenon of emission of electrons from a metal surface when a light of suitable
frequency is incident on it is called photoelectric effect and the liberated electrons are called
photoelectrons.
Hallwach’s and Lenard’s observations
Lenard and Hallwach studied photoelectric effect experimentally.
Lenard observed that when UV radiations were allowed to shine on a metal plate electrons
were emitted from it. As soon as the radiations were cut off, emission of electrons stopped.

Hallwach noticed that an uncharged zinc plate became positively charged when it was
irradiated by UV light. Positive charge on a positively charged zinc plate was found to be
further enhanced when it was illuminated by the same UV light. From these observations he
concluded that electrons were emitted from the zinc plate under the action of UV light.

Both Hallwach and Lenard observed that when UV light fell on the metal plate, no electrons
were emitted at all when the frequency of the incident light was lesser than a certain
minimum value, called the threshold frequency. This minimum frequency was found to
depend on the nature of the metal plate. This was perhaps the most significant observation
made by both of them.

Experimental study of photoelectric effect

The experimental set up required for the study of photoelectric effect is as shown in the
diagram.

When light of suitable frequency is incident on plate C electrons are emitted from it which in
turn are collected by plate A. Battery in the circuit maintains potential difference between
the plates A and C. Photo current in the circuit is recorded by the micro ammeter whereas the
voltage between plates C and A is measured by voltmeter. The polarity of the plates C and A
can be reversed by commutator. Potential divider arrangement helps us to vary the voltage
between plates C and A.
This experimental arrangement is used to study the variation of photocurrent with
(a) Intensity of incident radiation
(b) Frequency of incident radiation
(c) The potential difference between the plates A and C and
(d) Nature of the material of plate C.

1. Effect of intensity of incident light on photocurrent

To study the effect of intensity of incident light on photo current, frequency of incident
light (𝜈 > 𝜈𝑜 ) is kept fixed. A constant potential difference is maintained between
plates A and C (A is at positive potential w.r.t C).
It is found that photocurrent increases linearly with intensity of incident light. The
number of photo electrons emitted per second is directly proportional to the intensity
of the incident light.

2. Effect of potential on photocurrent

Here frequency of incident light (𝜈 > 𝜈𝑜 ) and intensity of incident light (say 𝐼1 ) are
fixed.
As positive potential applied to plate A w.r.t C is increased, current increases first and
then it saturates. Saturation current corresponds to the case where all the electrons
emitted from plate C reach plate A.
 We now apply a retarding potential to the plate A w.r.t C and make it increasingly negative
gradually. A certain minimum retarding potential is required to make the current in the
circuit zero.
The minimum retarding potential given to the collector plate (A) for which the
photocurrent becomes zero is called cut-off or stopping potential.
Stopping potential is a measure of maximum kinetic energy of photoelectrons.
𝑲𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝒆𝑽𝒐
From the graph it is clear that stopping potential (𝐾𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 ) is independent of intensity of
incident light whereas saturation current increases with increase in intensity of incident
light.

3. Effect of frequency of incident light on stopping potential

Here intensity of incident light is kept constant.

From the graph it is very clear that saturation current is independent of frequency of incident
light whereas stopping potential (𝐾𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 ) increases with increase in frequency of incident
light.

The above graph shows that

 (a) The stopping potential and hence 𝐾𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 of emitted electrons varies linearly with the
frequency of incident light.
(b)If frequency of incident light is lesser than a certain minimum value called threshold
frequency (𝝂𝒐 ) there is no photoelectron emission (even if the incident light is bright) and
this threshold frequency value is different for different metals.

4. Photoelectron emission is an instantaneous process. There is hardly any time lag

(10-9 s or less) between the incidence of radiation and the emission of photoelectrons
even if the incident light is dull.

Experimental results or observations or laws of photoelectron emission

1. Photoelectron emission is an instantaneous process. There is hardly any time lag
(10-9 s or less) between the incidence of radiation and the emission of
photoelectrons even if incident light is dull.
2. For a given photo metal there exists a certain minimum frequency of incident light
called threshold frequency below which there will be no photoelectron emission
no matter how bright the light is.
3. Maximum kinetic energy of emitted photoelectrons varies linearly with the
frequency of incident light but is independent of intensity of incident light.
4. For frequencies greater than the threshold frequency for a photo metal,
Photocurrent varies linearly with the intensity of incident light.
5. Saturation current is independent of frequency of the incident light but it increases
with increase in intensity of incident light.

Threshold wavelength and threshold frequency

Threshold wavelength is the maximum wavelength of incident radiation above
which there will be no photoelectron emission.
Threshold frequency is the minimum frequency of incident radiation below which
there will be no photoelectron emission.
Relation between them is 𝑪 = 𝝀𝒐 𝝂𝒐 where C is speed of light in vacuum.

Limitations of wave theory of light in explaining photoelectric effect

1. According to wave model of light, incident wave energy is absorbed by a large
number of electrons at the metal surface. Each electron receives a small fraction
of the incident energy. Explicit calculations estimate that it can take hours or more
for a single electron to get liberated from the metal surface. This clearly contradicts
experimental observation that photoelectron emission is instantaneous.
2. According to wave theory, as intensity of the incident light increases, energy of the
wave increases. There by this model predicts that there should be an increase in
kinetic energy of emitted electrons when intensity of light increases but
experimental results suggest otherwise.
 3. According to wave picture of light, if the incident light is bright enough then there
should be photoelectron emission irrespective of frequency of incident light. In
other words there is no concept of threshold frequency as per the wave model but
experimentally it is very evident that its not the intensity but the frequency which
decides whether there will be photoelectron emission or not.

Quantum theory of radiation

According to Planck’s quantum theory, radiation energy is built up of discrete
units called the quanta or photon. The energy of each quanta or photon is
𝑬 = 𝒉𝝂 Where h is Planck’s constant and 𝜈 is frequency of incident radiation.
Einstein explained photoelectric effect using quantum picture of light.

Salient features of photon model of light

1. In interaction of radiation with matter, radiation behaves as if it is made up
of particles called photons.
2. Each photon has energy 𝐸 = ℎ𝜈 and momentum 𝑝 = ℎ𝜈⁄𝑐
3. Photons travel at speed c=3x108 ms-1 in vacuum.
4. Photons are electrically neutral and hence are not deflected in electric and
magnetic fields.
5. When intensity of incident light increases, the number of photons per
second crossing a given area increases whereas their energy remains
constant.
6. When frequency of incident light increases, the energy of each photon
increases but the number of photons remains the same.

Einstein’s photoelectric equation

According to Einstein the basic process involved in photoelectron emission is the absorption
of a photon by an electron.
A photon of energy 𝒉𝝂 is incident on a metal whose work function is 𝝓𝒐 . If ℎ𝜈 > 𝜙𝑜 , then
an electron (least tightly bound) will be emitted with maximum kinetic energy (𝐾𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 ).
𝒉𝝂 = 𝝓𝒐 + 𝑲𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒙 ….……………………… (1)
(Note that more tightly bound electrons will emerge with energies lesser than 𝐾𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 )
If 𝜈 = 𝜈𝑜 , then electron will be just emitted from the metal surface. Its 𝐾𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 0
𝒉𝝂𝒐 = 𝝓𝒐 …………………………….. (2)
Substituting (2) in (3),
𝒉𝝂 = 𝒉𝝂𝒐 + 𝑲𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒙 …………………….. (3)
0r 𝑲𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝒉(𝝂 − 𝝂𝒐 ) ………………… (4)

Einstein’s explanation of photoelectric effect

According to Einstein photoelectron emission is one photon-one electron phenomenon. One
photon can liberate one electron only.
 1. According to Einstein model, elementary process involved in photoelectron emission
is absorption of a photon by an electron. This happens instantaneously. Low intensity
of light does not translate to the delay in emission since the elementary process
involved is the same. Further the interaction between photon and electron is elastic.
2. When intensity of incident light is increased, the number of photons incident per
second increases, there by the number of emitted photoelectrons increases.
Consequently the photocurrent increases.
3. 𝑲𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝒉(𝝂 − 𝝂𝒐 )
If 𝜈 > 𝜈𝑜 , then 𝐾𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 is positive. (Electron emission will occur)
If 𝜈 < 𝜈𝑜 , then 𝐾𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 is negative. (Electron emission will not occur)
Since 𝐾𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 must be positive photoelectron emission will not occur if frequency of
incident light is below a certain minimum called threshold frequency for a given photo
metal.
4. When frequency of incident light is increased, the energy of incident photon increases
(𝐸 = ℎ𝜈). Consequently the kinetic energy of the emitted electron increases as per the
equation 𝑲𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝒉(𝝂 − 𝝂𝒐 )
𝑲𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒙 ∝ (𝝂 − 𝝂𝟎 )

Note:
(a) Increase in frequency of light increases the energy of the photon whereas increase in
intensity of light increases the number of photons per second.
(b) Einstein’s equation in terms of stopping potential is written as
𝒆𝑽𝒐 = 𝒉(𝝂 − 𝝂𝒐 ) Where 𝑲𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝒆𝑽𝒐
𝒆𝑽𝒐 = 𝒉𝝂 − 𝝓𝒐
𝒉 𝝓𝒐
𝑽𝒐 = ( ) 𝝂 − ………………… (5)
𝒆 𝒆
The above equation is in the form of 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 − 𝑐. The graph of 𝑉𝑜 versus 𝜈 is a straight line
ℎ
with a slope( ).
𝑒

Dual nature of matter

French physicist De Broglie proposed matter wave hypothesis in the year 1924. According to
his theory, just like radiation, matter also exhibits dual nature. i.e. moving particles of matter
displays wave like characteristics.
The waves associated with moving material particles are called matter waves or De Broglie
waves.
Expression for De Broglie wavelength
According to Planck’s quantum theory, energy of a photon is
𝐸 = ℎ𝜈 ………………… (1)
According to Einstein’s mass energy relation
𝐸 = 𝑚𝑐 2 ……………. (2)
Equating, ℎ𝜈 = 𝑚𝑐 2
ℎ𝜈
= 𝑚𝑐 (𝑝 = 𝑚𝑐 )
𝑐
 𝒉 𝜈 1
𝝀= ……. (3) ( = )
𝒑 𝑐 𝜆
For a particle of mass m, moving with a velocity v, its linear momentum is
𝑝 = 𝑚𝑣
Its De Broglie wavelength is given by
𝒉 𝒉
𝝀= = …………….. (4)
𝒑 𝒎𝒗
The implications of equation (4) are as follows
1. De Broglie wavelength of a moving particle is inversely proportional to its mass and its
1
speed. (𝜆 ∝ )
𝑚𝑣
2. If a particle is at rest (𝑣 = 0) no wave will be associated with it.
3. De Broglie wavelength of a moving particle is independent of the charge on the
particle.
4. In Equation (4) dual nature of matter is very evident as it relates two significant
quantities wavelength which is characteristic of a wave with momentum which is
characteristic of a moving particle.

Expression for De Broglie wavelength of an accelerated electron

Consider an electron of charge 𝑒 and mass 𝑚. It is accelerated through a potential 𝑉. Kinetic
energy gained by the electron equals the work done on it by the electric field.
𝐾 = 𝑒𝑉 ……………… (1)
1
W.K.T, 𝐾 = 𝑚𝑣 2 …………. (2)
2
Equate (1) and (2)
1
𝑚𝑣 2 = 𝑒𝑉
2
2𝑒𝑉
𝑣=√ …………. (3)
𝑚
Substitute the above equation in De Broglie’s matter wave equation
ℎ ℎ
𝜆= =
𝑚𝑣 2𝑒𝑉
𝑚√
𝑚
𝒉
𝝀= …………….. (4)
√𝟐𝒎𝒆𝑽
Substituting the numerical values of Planck’s constant (h), mass of electron (m) and charge of
an electron (e), we get
𝟏.𝟐𝟐𝟕
𝝀= 𝒏𝒎 …………….. (5)
√𝑽
Note that equation (4) is applicable to any accelerated charge whereas equation (5) is
specifically for an accelerated electron.

Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle

According to this principle, it is impossible to determine simultaneously the exact position
and momentum of a particle. There is always some uncertainty in the specification of position
(Δ𝑥) and some uncertainty in the specification of momentum (Δ𝑝). Mathematically,
𝒉
𝚫𝒙. 𝚫𝒑 ≈
𝟐𝝅
Davisson and Germer experiment
This experimental evidence for the wave nature of electrons was provided by Davisson and
Germer. The experimental arrangement is made as shown in the figure.

An accelerated beam of electrons is made to strike a nickel target. The intensity of the
scattered electron beam in a given direction is measured by the detector(collector) . The
detector can be moved on a circular scale and is connected to a galvanometer which records
the current. The galvanometer deflection is proportional to intensity of the electron beam.
This experiment was performed by varying the accelerating voltage from 44V to 68V. It was
noticed that intensity of the electron beam was maximum for potential 54V at a scattering
angle 500.
The sharp peak in the intensity of scatterd electron beam is due to the diffraction of electrons.
From electron diffraction experiments, the wavelenght of the electron beam was found to be
𝜆𝑒𝑥𝑝 = 0.165𝑛𝑚
Theoritically, at an accelerating voltage 54V, De Broglie wavelenght is
1.227 1.227
𝜆𝑡ℎ = = = 0.167𝑛𝑚
√𝑉 √54
There is an excellent agreement between experimental and theoritical values. So this
experiment confirms the excistence of matter waves or this experiment verifies the wave
nature of electrons.