NUCLEI

The atomic nucleus was discovered in 1911 by Rutherford from the study of α-rays scattering experiment. According to him, the
entire positive charge and most of the mass of an atom is concentrated at the centre forming its nucleus. The size of the nucleus is
much smaller than size of the atom. But more than 99.9% of the whole mass of the atom is concentrated in the nucleus. Therefore,
nucleus occupies very small space in the atom.

ATOMIC NUCLEUS:
A nucleus is made of protons and neutrons. A proton is a positively charged particle and has a charge equal to that of an electron. The
mass of the proton is about 1836 times that of an electron. Mass of proton, mp= 1.672×10-27Kg.
A neutron is a neutral particle. Mass of the neutron, mn =1.675×10-27Kg.The two constituents of a nucleus are called nucleons. The
different types of nuclei are called nuclides. The number of protons present inside the nucleus is called the atomic number(Z).The
total number of nucleons (P+N) present inside the nucleus of an Atom is called mass number(A).Therefore, the number of neutrons
in an atom is N=A-Z. A nucleus is symbolically represented as ZXA where, X is the chemical symbol of the element.
Ex: 2He4 represents helium nucleus which contains 2 protons and 4 nucleons.
Nuclei are classified as,
ISOTOPES: The nuclei having same number of protons but different number of neutrons are called isotopes.
Ex:1 H1, 1H2, 1H3 are the isotopes of hydrogen and 8O16, 8O17, 8O18 are the isotopes of oxygen.

ISOBARS: The nuclei with the same mass number A but different atomic number Z are called isobars.
Ex: 1H3 and 2He3 , 11Na23 and 12Mg23 , 20Ca40 and 18Ar40

ISOTONES: Nuclei with the same number of neutrons N are called isotones.
Ex: 1H3 and 2He4, 8O16 and 6C14

PROPERTIES OF NUCLEUS:
1. Mass of the nucleus: The total mass of the nucleus (P+N) present in a nucleus is called nuclear mass.
i.e., nuclear mass = mass of proton + mass of neutron
or M= ZmP + (A-Z)mN

2. Size of the nucleus: The nucleus is very small and has a definite size. The mean radius is found tobe about 10-14 to 10-15 m. It
has been found experimentally that the volume of a nucleus is directly proportional to its mass number A. If R is the radius of a
nucleus having mass number A then, its volume = 4/3 πR3
4 3
i.e., πR α A ,
3
or A α R 1/3
or R = R0A1/3 where, R0 is a constant whose value is found to be 1.2 × 10 -15m = 1.2fm
This shows that the radius of the nucleus depends upon mass number A.

3. Nuclear density: The ratio of the mass of the nucleus and its volume is called nuclear density. It has an enormous density of
about 2.3 x 1017 kg/m3. Nuclear density is independent of the mass number (A). Hence, nuclei of all elements have nearly the same
density.

ATOMIC MASS UNIT AND ELECTRON VOLT:

Electron volt is unit of energy. 1 electron volt (eV) is the energy acquired by an electron when it is accelerated through a potential
different of 1 volt.
Work done (in eV) = Electron charge (in coulomb) x Potential Difference (in volt)
1 eV = 1.6 x 10-19 C x 1 Volt.
1eV= 1.602×10-19J
In atomic physics, the mass is expressed in a unit called Atomic Mass Unit (amu).
th
 1 
1 a.m.u. is defined as   the mass of 1 atom of carbon –12 isotopes.
 12 
6.023 x 1023 atoms of C-12 weigh → 12 gm.
 12
 1 atom of C −12 weighs →
6.023x 1023 gm
 a.m.u = 1 x 12
gm
12 6.023X 1023
= 1.66 x 10-27Kg
Note: mp = 1.00728 amu, mn = 1.00867 amu, me = 0.00055 amu.

RELATION BETWEEN ATOMIC MASS UNIT AND ELECTRON VOLT:

According to Einstein, mass and energy are intercovertible. Energy and mass related by the equation E = mc 2 where c is the velocity
of light in free space.
E= mc2
Here, m= 1amu, c=2.99×108m/s
Hence, E= 1.66×10-27 × (2.99×108)2
= 1.49×10-10 J
1.49 10−10
E= = 931MeV
1.6 10−19
Therefore, energy equivalent of mass of 1amu is 931MeV.

MASS DEFECT:
It is found that the mass of the nucleus is slightly smaller than the sum of the masses of protons and neutrons constituting the nucleus.
The difference between the total mass of the constituents and actual mass of the nucleus is called the Mass Defect (m).
m={(Zmp+ (A-Z)mn) - M}c2
Where, Z is the number of protons, mp is the mass of each proton, (A-Z) is the number of neutrons, mn is the mass of each neutron
and M actual mass of the nucleus.
In the nucleus the like charged protons tend to repel one another, but they are held together by a strong force and the energy required
to hold the nucleons intact is supplied by conversion of mass into energy and hence the mass defect.

BINDING ENERGY:
The minimum amount of energy required to liberate all the nucleon from the nucleus is called Nuclear Binding Energy. It can also be
defined as the energy with which the nucleons are held together within the nucleus. The mass defect during the formation of the
nucleus is converted into binding energy of the nucleus according to the relation, E= mc2.
Binding energy, Eb= {(Zmp+ (A-Z)mn) - M}c2
The binding energy per nucleon is the average energy required to extract one nucleon from the nucleus to infinite distance.
Totalbindingenergy Eb
Binding energy/nucleon, Ebn= =
Massnumber A

NOTE: Larger the mass defect, larger is the binding energy and more stable is the nucleus.

BINDING ENERGY CURVE:

The average binding energy per nucleon is called the specific binding energy of the nucleus.
The curve between binding energy per nucleon and the mass number A for various nuclei is called binding energy curve. From the
fig. It is noticed that,
1. The binding energy per nucleon is almost constant for nuclei of middle mass number (A in between 30 & 170).
2. The binding energy per nucleon is small for both light nuclei(A<30) and heavy nuclei (A> 170).
3. The nuclei with A=56 has large binding energy per nucleon about 8.75MeV.
CONCLUSION:
1. The binding energy curve indicates the stability of the nucleus. The greater the binding energy per nucleon of a nucleus, the more
stable the nucleus is and vice-versa.
2. When a heavy Nucleus split up into lighter nuclei, then binding energy per nucleon of lighter nuclei is more than that of the
original heavy nucleus. Thus, The large amount of the energy is liberated in this process. This process is called nuclear fission.
3. When two light nuclei combine to form a heavier nucleus, the binding energy per nucleon will increase. As a result, energy will be
released. This process is called nuclear fusion.

NUCLEAR FORCE:
The strong forces of attraction which firmly hold the nucleus (i.e., protons and neutrons) inside the nucleus are called nuclear forces.
CHARACTERISTICS:
1. The nuclear force (FN) is the strongest force in nature and the gravitational force (FG) is the weakest force such that FN :FG : Fe = 1
: 1036 : 1038 where Fe is the coulombian force.
2. This force operates within a distance of about 3 fm to 4fm. Hence short ranged and is most interactive with neighboring nucleons.
This property is called saturation character of nuclear forces.
3. The nuclear force is charge independent i.e., there can be a nuclear force between a proton and proton (F pp). a proton and a
neutron (FPN) also neutron and neutron (FNN) such that FPP = FPN = FNN.
4. It is a spin dependent force being more stronger in the case of two nucleons having parallel spin () than two nucleons having
anti parallel spin ()
5. Being a non-central force, it does not act along the line joining the centers of the nucleons.
6. The nuclear force exists due to exchange of Pions or Pi-mesons (+,-,0) between two nucleons hence are exchange forces.
NOTE:
1. Nuclear forces lend stability to the nucleus, which might otherwise break-up due to electrostatic repulsion between protons.
2. Hydrogen nucleus does not require nuclear force for its existence.
3. The meson theory of nuclear force was proposed by Japanese physicist Hideki yukawa in 1935.
4. +, - are charged and have mass 273me (electron mass) 0 is neutral, has a mass 264me

RADIOACTIVITY:
The process of spontaneous disintegration of the nuclei of heavy elements with the emission of certain types of radiations is called
radioactivity. Radioactivity was discovered by Henry Becquerel in 1896. There are three types of radiations that can be emitted by a
radioactive substance, namely,
(a) An α- particle which is a helium nucleus.
(b) A β- particle which is an electron created within the nucleus itself.
(c) γ-rays which are very high energy photons.
LAW OF RADIOACTIVE DECAY:
Rutherford and Soddy discovered experimentally that atoms of a radioactive element disintegrate continuously giving rise to new
elements. The number of atoms of the original element decreases continuously with time. Then, the number of atoms disintegrating
per second also decreases. The rate of disintegration at any instant is governed by the radioactive decay law which states that the rate
of disintegration of atoms at any instant of time is directly proportional to the number of radioactive atoms present at that instant.
Let N0 be the number of atoms present initially in the radioactive sample. After time t, the number of radioactive atoms left
undecayed in the sample is N. According to decay law, the rate of disintegration is directly proportional to the number of radioactive
𝑑𝑁
atoms present at the instant of disintegration i.e., αN
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑁
Therefore, =-λN --------(1)
𝑑𝑡

Where, λ is a constant of proportionality and is called decay constant or disintegration constant.

The negative sign shows that N is decreasing with time.
𝑑𝑁
= - λdt
𝑁

On integrating, we get, logeN = -λt + C --------(2)

Where, C is a constant of integration whose value can be found from the initial conditions.
At t=0, N= N0 . Substituting these values in equation (2) we get, C = log e N0
Now, equation (2) becomes, , logeN = -λt + loge N0
𝑁
i.e., loge = -λt
𝑁0
𝑁
= e-λt or N = N0 e-λt --------(3)
𝑁0
It is clear from equation (3) that radioactive decay is exponential. Also N=0 only at t=∞. Thus, every radioactive element takes
infinitely long time for all the atoms in the sample to completely disintegrate.
Radioactive Decay Constant:
− t
From radioactive decay law, N = No e

1 −
If t = then, N = No e 

N = No e−1

No No
N= or N=
e 2.718
N = 0.368 N o
Hence, Radioactive decay constant may be defined as the reciprocal of the time during which the number of atoms left
1
undecayed in the sample reduces to times or 0.368 times (i.e., 36.8%) the initial value. Or
e
dN
=
( −dN / dt )
= − N or
dt N
Hence radioactive decay constant of a substance may also be defined as the ratio of its instantaneous rate of disintegration to
the number of atoms present at the time.
NOTE: The decay constant of radioactive sample is a characteristic of the radioactive substance. The substances having large value
of the decay constant, decay rapidly in comparison to those having a small value of decay constant

HALF LIFE OF A RADIOACTIVE SUBSTANCE

The half-life of a radioactive substance is defined as the time during which the nuclei of half of the atoms of the radioactive
substance will disintegrate. It is denoted by T1/2.
Consider a radioactive sample containing N o number atoms at a time t = 0. Then, the number of atoms left behind after a time ‘t’ is
given by N = N o e
− t
→ (1)
⎯⎯
𝑁0
When t = T1/2, N=
2
𝑁0 1
= N0 𝑒 −𝜆𝑇1/2 OR 𝑒 −𝜆𝑇1/2 = OR λT1/2 =2
2 2
Loge 2 = λ T1/2
2.303× log10 2= λ T1/2
𝟎.𝟔𝟗𝟑
T1/2 =
𝝀

Thus the half life of a radioactive substance is inversely proportional to its decay constant, and is characteristic property of it is
nuclei.

MEAN LIFE OF A RADIOACTIVE SUBSTANCE

The mean life of a radioactive substance is the sum of the lives of all the atoms of the substance divided by the total number of atoms
present initially in the substance.
Let N0 be the total number of atoms present initially in a radioactive substance. After time t, the number of radioactive atoms
present in the sample is N.
Total life of dN atoms = number of atoms × life of each atom = dN × t
𝑁
Total life of all atoms = ∫0 0 𝑡𝑑𝑁
As N0 is extremely high even for a small mass, it may be taken as infinity.
∞
Hence, total life of all atoms = ∫0 𝑡 𝑑𝑁
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑖𝑓𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠
The average life of a radioactive substance 𝜏𝑎𝑣 =
𝑁0
 𝑑𝑁
We know that, =-λN OR dN= - λ Ndt
𝑑𝑡
∞
∫0 𝑡 (−𝜆𝑁𝑑𝑡)
Therefore, 𝜏𝑎𝑣 =
𝑁0
1
On integration by parts, we get 𝜏𝑎𝑣 =
𝜆
Thus, the mean life of a radioactive substance is the reciprocal of decay constant.

RELATION BETWEEN HALF LIFE AND MEAN LIFE:

0.693 1
We know that, half life, T1/2 = and mean life, τav =
𝜆 𝜆
Hence, T1/2 = 0.693τ

ACTIVITY:
The rate of disintegration in a radioactive substance is known as its activity .
−dN −dN
Activity A= = − N But = − N
dt dt
The rate of decay of a radioactive substance is called activity (A) of the substance.
−dN
A= → (1)
⎯⎯
dt
The negative sign indicates that activity of a substance decreases with time
−dN
But = − N ⎯⎯ → ( 2)
dt
 A = − ( − N ) =  N
A = N or → ( 3)
Ao =  N o ⎯⎯
But N = N o e − t From (3)
A = o e − t
or A = Ao e−t
Here Ao =  N o is the activity of the sample at t = 0
UNITS OF RADIOACTIVITY:
1. The SI unit of activity is becquerel (Bq). One becquerel is 1 disintegration per second.
curie (Ci): The activity of a radioactive sample is said to be one curie if it undergoes 3.7  10 disintegrations per second.
10
2.
Therefore 1 Ci = 3.7  10 disintegrations/sec = 3.7  10 Bq
10 10

6
3. Rutherford (Rd): one rutherford is 10 disintegrations per second i.e.,1 Rd = 106 Bq

ALPHA DECAY (α- DECAY)

The process of emission of α particle from a radioactive nucleus is called α-decay.
When a nucleus emits an α particle, it loses two protons and two neutrons. Therefore , Z decreases by 2 and A decreases by 4. Hence,
α-decay can be represented as ZXA → Z-2YA-4 + 2He4 + Q
Where, X is called the parent nucleus and Y the daughter nucleus.
Q is the disintegration energy released in the decay process due to mass defect.
Eg: 92U238 → 90Th234 + 2He4

BETA DECAY (β- DECAY)

The process of emission of an electron from a radioactive nucleus is called β- decay.
When a nucleus emits a β-particle(electron), the mass number A of the nucleus does not change but its atomic number Z increases by
1. Therefore β-decay can be represented as ZXA → Z+1YA + -1e0 + Q
Where, Q represents the maximum kinetic energy with which a β-particles care emitted.
In order to overcome the violation of law of conservation of mass energy and momentum, Pauli proposed a theory called neutrino
hypothesis. According to neutrino hypothesis, there must exist another particle called neutrino . Therefore, in a negative β-decay, a
neutron is transformed into proton, electron and an antineutrino.
i.e., n→ p + -1e0 + 𝜐̅
Similarly, in a positive β-decay, a proton is transformed into a neutron, positron and a neutrino
i.e., p→ n + 1e0 + υ
Neutrinos are neutral particles with very small mass compared to electron.
Eg: β – -decay : 15 P 32 → 16 S 32 + e- + 𝜐̅
β + -decay: 11Na 22 → 10Ne 22 + e+ + υ
GAMMA DECAY (γ – DECAY):
The phenomenon of emission of gamma rays from a radioactive nucleus is called gamma decay.
When an α or a β particle is emitted, the daughter nucleus will be in a excited state. When the
daughter nucleus returns to the lower excited state, it emits photons. The photons emitted in this
process are called γ- decay. When a nucleus decays by emitting a γ- rays, its composition does not
change but only its energy state changes. The γ- decay can be represented as( ZXA)* → ZXA + γ
Where, ( ZXA)* indicate a nucleus in an excited state.

NUCLEAR FISSION AND CHAIN REACTION:

The process of splitting of a nucleus of a heavy nucleus into two nuclei nof intermediate masses with the release of energy is called
nuclear Fission.
Eg:

A chain reaction is a self propagating process in which the nuclear fission reaction continues by itself till all the atoms of the
fissionable material are disintegrated.
𝑟ate of production of neutrons
Neutron multiplication factor,k=
rate of loss of neutron𝑠
If k=1, the nuclear chain reaction is said to be critical or steady
If k>1,the nuclear reaction is super critical and it becomes uncontrolled
If k<1, the nuclear chain reaction is subcritical and chain reaction stops.
The two types of chain reaction are,
1. Controlled chain reaction: in controlled chain reaction, the neutron population is allowed to reach a steady leveland then the
number of fission producing neutrons is maintained constant. This is the principle used in a nuclear reactor.
2. Uncontrolled chain reaction: in an uncontrolled chain reaction, the number of neutrons is allowed to multiply indefinitely.
Therefore, in a short interval of time, the entire fission material undergoes fission and thelarge amount of energy is liberated
causing an explosion. This is the principle in atom bomb.
NUCLEAR REACTOR:
Nuclear reactor is a device in which controlled fission reaction takes place. The essential parts of a nuclear reactor are, 1. Nuclear
fuel 2. Moderator 3. Control rods 4. Coolant and 5. Safety system.

1. Nuclear fuel: the nuclear fuel used in a nuclear reactor is generally the enriched U-235. The nuclear fuel is sealed in long, narrow
metal aluminium tubes called fuel rods.
2. Moderator: the moderators are used to slow down the fast neutrons. Commonly used moderators are graphite and heavy water.
3. Control rods: in order to control the rate at which fission reaction occurs, control rods of neutron absorbing material(cadmium)
are used. These rods absorb slow neutrons. By controlling the lengths of these rods inserted into the moderator the fission rate is
controlled.
4. Coolant: the purpose of coolant is to remove heat from the reactor core and take it to the place of its utilization e.g: steam
turbine. Frequently used coolants are graphite, pressurized CO 2, liquid sodium, liquid potassium and heavy water
5. Safety system:in nuclear reactor, many types of harmful radiations are emitted. In order to prevent these radiations from reaching
the persons working near the reactor, the reactor is enclosed in thick concrete walls.
USES:1. Nuclear reactors are used to generate electric powers.
Specialized nuclear reactors can produce radioactive isotopes for their use in medical science, agriculture and industry.
Nuclear reactors are used to produce high velocity beams of neutrons for their use in nuclear physics.

NUCLEAR FUSION:
The process in which two light nuclei combine together to form a heavier nucleus releasing large energy is called nuclear fusion.
2 2 4
1 H + 1 H → 2 He + 23.91 MeV (m = 0.0256 Amu)

When two Deutrons combine, a helium nucleus is forced and an energy of 23.91 MeV is released. Here again the mass of the
product is less than the mass of the reactants causing mass defect which gets converted into energy.
The other possible fusion reactions are

1 H 2 + 1H 2 → 1He3 + 1He1 + energy

1 H 2 + 1H 2 → 2 He 4 + 0 n1 + energy
1 H 2 + 1H 2 → 2 He3 + 0 n1 + energy
Nuclear fusion is very difficult to achieve, as it requires extremely high temperature and pressure. This is due to the fact that,
the electrostatic repulsion occurs when two nuclei are brought closer. As a result lot of energy has to be spent to overcome to
repulsion.
Note :1.Nuclear fusion is a thermo nuclear reaction.
2.In fusion energy released for same mass is greater than in fission. For this reason hydrogen bomb is more dangerous than an
atom bomb.
Distinguish between Nuclear Fission and Fusion.
Nuclear Fission Nuclear Fusion

1. Nucleus of a heavy element splits up into two 1. Two light nuclei fuse (combine) to produce heavier nucleus
lighter nuclei with release of energy. with release of energy.
2. Can take place at all temperatures. 2. Requires very high temperature of the order of 10 60C
3. Neutrons are released. 3. Neutrons may be released.
4. Energy released in one fission reaction is very high 4. Energy released in one fusion reaction is comparatively low.
5. Energy released per Nucleon is low. 5. Energy released per Nucleon is high.
6. Radioactive waste will be there and needs to be disposed. 6. No radioactive waste.
7. Raw material availability is scarce. 7. Raw material is available in abundance.