Nuclear

NUCLEAR PHYSICS

The Structure of the Nucleus of an Atom

Matter is made up of atoms. An atom is made up of central nucleus, containing protons and
neutrons. It also has electrons moving round the nucleus at various energy levels. The protons
are positively charged and carry a charge of +1, whilst the neutrons have no charge. Hence the
nucleus is positively charged. The electrons are negatively charged and carry a charge of -1. An
electrically neutral atom has equal number of protons and electrons

Definitions:
Nucleons: Nucleons are the constituents of the nucleus of the atom. It is the collective name of
protons and neutrons which make up the nucleus.

Atomic number: Atomic number is the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom.

It is denoted by Z. In a neutral atom, the atomic number is also equal to the number of electrons
in the atom. It determines the position of the element in the periodic table. For Hydrogen, Z = 1
for Oxygen Z = 8.

Mass number: Mass number is the sum of the protons and the neutrons in the nucleus of an
atom.

It is denoted by A. The mass number is also called nucleon number.

If the number of neutron is represented by N then mathematically A = Z + N

Nuclide: Nuclide is a nucleus whose atomic number and mass number are known or specified

It is generally represented by

Where A = mass number; Z = atomic number

For example is a Helium Nuclide

and are two nuclides of chlorine

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Nuclei: Nuclei is the plural for nucleus. Thus one can say six nuclei and not six nucleuses.

Isotopes: Isotopes are atoms of the same element having the same atomic numbers but different
mass numbers. They have the same number of protons but different number of neutrons.

For example Hydrogen has three isotopes. Hydrogen-1, hydrogen-2 and hydrogen-3

i.e.

are 2 isotopes of chlorine. i.e. chlorine-35 and chlorine-37 respectively

are 2 isotopes of oxygen i.e. oxygen-16 and oxygen-17

are 2 isotopes of carbon i.e. carbon-12 and carbon-13

Atomic Mass unit (u, mu, amu): The atomic mass unit is a standard unit for measuring atomic
masses by comparing it to carbon – 12 isotope.

The atomic mass unite is defined as one-twelfth ( ) the mass of one atom of carbon-12 isotope.

The atomic mass unite is sometimes called the unified atomic mass unit.

Note: One mole of carbon-12 = 12g = 12x 10-3 kg

But one mole of carbon-12 contain 6.02 x 1023 atoms

∴ the mass of one atom of carbon-12 =

1u = x (the mass of one atom of carbon-12)

= x

= 1.6606 x 10-27 kg

∴ 1u = 1.6606 x 10-27 kg

Electron Volt Energy Unit (eV)

The electron volt is a common unit of energy in physics widely used in atomic, nuclear and
particle physics.

The electron volt is the amount of energy gained (or lost) or by a single electron when it is moved
across an electric potential difference of one volt (1V).
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Work (W) =Charge (q) x Potential Difference (V)

Charge on an electron (q) = 1.6022x10-19C

Potential Difference (V) = 1V

= (1.6022x10-19C) x (1V)

= 1.6022x10-19J

∴ 1eV = 1.6022x10-19J

1Megaelectron-volt = 106 electron volt

1Mev = 106 eV

( )
Note: ( )

Mass Defect and Binding Energy

The mass of a nucleus is always less than the sum of the individual particles which combine to
make the nucleus

Mass Defect:

Mass defect is the difference in mass between a nucleus and its individual particles (nucleons)
.This is the mass equivalent of the energy released in the formation of the nucleus.

Mass–energy equivalence

According to Einstein's famous equation the relationship between mass and the energy is given
by:

E = mc2

Where m is the mass, c is the speed of light, and E is the energy equivalent of the mass.

From this relation we can calculate the energy equivalent of one atomic mass unit (1u):

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Now:

1u = 14.94x 10-11J = 931Mev

Binding Energy:
Binding Energy is the minimum amount of energy required to take apart the nucleus of an atom
into it constituent particles

Note: When a nucleus is taken apart, the sum of the masses of its nucleons is always found to be
more than the mass of the nucleus. There is a defect in mass (Δm). The energy equivalent of this
defect in mass is the Binding Energy of the nucleus

The mass defect of the of the nucleus can be calculated using the following equation:

Δm = Zmp + Nmn – m

Where:

Δm = mass defect

Z = atomic number

N = number of neutrons

mp = mass of proton

mn = mass of neutron

m = mass of nucleus

The binding energy can then be calculated using:

E = (Δm) c2 (Δm in kg, E is in J)

Or

1u = 14.94x 10-11J = 931Mev if given

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Nuclear Reaction
Nuclear reaction is the reaction which involves the interaction between nuclei leading to the
formation of new nuclide with the release of some particles and energy. Nuclear reactions can be
represented by nuclear equations.

Illustration:

A -Parent nuclide, target nucleus

B – Bombarding particle, projectile

Y- Daughter nuclide, final nucleus

c- Emitted particle

Q- Energy

A target nucleus A is bombarded by a particle b and results in a final nucleus Y with emitted
particle c. Q is the energy released in the reaction. Q is positive if the total mass of Y and c is less
than that of the projectile (b) and target (A),

If the total mass of Y and c is more than the mass of A and b, Q is negative and it is the energy
absorbed before the reaction takes place. In balancing nuclear equations, two basic principles or
laws are used. This are:

 The sum of the atomic numbers on both sides of the equation must be the same(
conservation of atomic number/conservation of charge)
 The sum of the mass numbers on both sides of the reaction must be the same( conservation
of mass)

Illustration:

+ Q (energy)
For conservation of charge: b + d = d + f

For conservation of mass: a + c = c + e

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Examples:

Find the value of x, y and z in the following nuclear equation

1.
2.
3.

Radioactivity /Radioactive Decay

Some nuclides of atoms are stable whereas others are unstable. Unstable nuclides break down
or disintegrate to become stable nuclides. This is termed radioactivity or radioactive decay.

Radioactivity is the disintegration of an atomic nucleus into two or more nuclei with the emission
of alpha (α), beta (β) and gamma (γ), rays with the release of energy. Radioactivity may occur
naturally or may be induced artificially

Natural Radioactivity

This is the disintegration of an unstable atomic nucleus with the emission of α, β and γ rays with
the release of energy and the formation of more stable nuclei.

Uranium, thorium and actinium are examples of elements that undergo natural radioactivity

Example:

1.
2.

Artificial Radioactivity
This is an induced disintegration of a stable nucleus with the emission of α, β and γ rays and the
formation of other stable nucleus with the release of energy. This is initiated by bombarding
stable nuclei with fast moving particles such as neutrons, protons or α-particles. The nuclei
absorbs the particle becomes unstable and undergo disintegration

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Example:

1.
2.
Alpha Decay
When a nucleus disinter grates with the emission of an alpha particle, it turns into a nucleus with
chemical properties similar to those of an element two places earlier in the periodic table. This
process is known as Alpha decay

Symbolically:

Parent Daughter
Nuclide Nuclide Alpha
Particle

Example:

Beta Decay
Beta decay occurs when a nucleus disintegrates with the emission of a beta particle and turns
out into a nucleus with the chemical properties similar to those of an element one place later on
the periodic table. Note that electrons do not exist in the nucleus. Hence the electron must be
created within the nucleus at the time of its emission.

Symbolically:
Parent Daughter Beta
Nuclide Nuclide Particle

Example:

Gamma decay
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This involves the emission of gamma rays in a radioactive decay. In this type of decay, neither the
atomic number Z, nor the mass number A, changes as a result the nucleus maintains its chemical
properties.

Symbolically:

Gamma
Ray

Example:

Properties of Alpha Particles:

1. They are Helium nuclei (mass of 4 amu)

2. They are slightly deflected in magnetic and electric fields
3. They are positively charged (+2)
4. They are relatively massive/heavy
5. They can be blocked by a thin sheet of paper(i.e. they have low penetrating power)
6. They have high ionizing power(because they have a relatively large charge)
7. They are relatively slow

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Properties of Beta Particles:
1. They are strongly deflected by magnetic fields
2. They carry a charge of -1
3. They have the same mass as electrons
4. They are absorbed or stopped by a sheet of aluminum
5. They ionize atoms that they pass through but not as strongly as alpha particle
6. They have medium penetrating power( as compared to alpha and gamma radiations)
7. They are fast and light

Properties of Gamma Rays:

1. Gamma rays are electromagnetic waves not particles
2. They have no mass or charge
3. They have very high penetrating power it takes a thick sheet of metal such as lead or
concrete to absorb or stop them
4. They are not affected by both magnetic and electric fields
5. They have the lowest ionization power( They do not directly ionize other atoms, although
they may cause atoms to emit other particles which will then cause ionization)

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Detecting Radioactivity
One of several ways of detecting radioactivity is by the use of the Geiger-Muller counter.

The Geiger-Muller counter depends on ionization to work. It basically consists of a gas-filled tube
containing two electrodes with a high voltage (about 400 V) across them. The negative electrode
is a cylinder C, and a straight wire running alone the axis of the cylinder and insulated from it is a
positive electrode A. The gas in the tube is argon and bromine at low pressure. When an ionizing
radiation enters the tube, the argon and the bromine gas is ionized producing electrons and
positive ions. For a voltage above the breakdown voltage of the gas, the number of electrons and
positive ions increase. When this happens, the electrons move towards the anode and positive
ion towards the cathode. Thus, a pulse of charge flows between the electrodes. This pulse is sent
into an amplifier to be magnified and then to a counter. The counter registers the passage of the
radiation as a tickling sound.

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