Practical works V – second cycle

RADIOMETRY AND DOSIMETRY

I. Notions of radioactivity.
II. Effects of radiation on matter.
III. Detection of radiation.Measuring the radioactivity .
IV. Measuring the half-thicknes for Pb, Al, Cu
V. Photodosimetry

I. Notions of radioactivity.
1. The atom
All the matter around us consists of atoms, the basis of small size which allows to build
our universe. Each atom consists of a core around which there is a cloud of electrons.

Fig.1 Atom structure

 The nucleus is positively charged and electrons negatively, so that the whole is neutral.
The nucleus is about 100,000 times smaller than the atom and includes virtually all the mass.
Electrons are negatively charged particles (- 1.602. 10-19 Coulombs), which have a mass of
0.910953. 10-30 kg. Is the set of electrons that will give the atom its chemical properties, this has
the ability to bind to other atoms to form complex structures. It is customary to say that electrons
"orbit" around the nucleus, but it is wrong; this is an image that has its limits. Requires an
accurate description of quantum mechanics. Each atom can be characterized by its number of
electrons (called the atomic number Z) and each number is associated with a name. Thus an atom
with a nucleus with a positive charge and about which there is an electron is called hydrogen and
is represented by the symbol H. For two charges, it is helium (He) and so on up to uranium,
which has 92 charges. Beyond that, there are other atoms that were created by man and known as
artificial. Plutonium, with 94 charges, is one example. So there is a correlation between the
number of loads and the properties of atoms. Hydrogen has a tendency to be able to bind with
oxygen to form water, while the helium does not bind with other atoms. If you tear one or more
electrons in an atom or if he adds more, you get a body charged positively or negatively,
depending on the case. It is then called an ion. In this case, its chemical properties are altered.

2. The nucleus

The nucleus has a given number of positive charges that can give the name of the
corresponding atom. Particles that give support to the nucleus are called proton. Each proton
carries a positive charge Basic. The hydrogen nucleus consists of a proton, helium, two protons
In these particles, the neutral particles are called neutrons.
The nucleus, it is composed of two types of particles:
- Neutrons, zero charge and mass 1.675. 10-27 kg
- Protons, positively charged (1.602. 10-19 C) and mass 1.6723. 10-27 kg
Particles (protons and neutrons) constituting the nucleus are called nucleons.
Together, the protons and neutrons of similar mass and size, form the core mass. Known
nucleon, the core particles, which can be either a proton or neutron. A core is characterized by
two numbers, the number of protons, usually called Z and the total number of nucleons called A.
Z thus gives the number of charges and therefore can identify the corresponding atom. Two
nuclei that have the same number of loads which correspond to the same atom, but a number of
nucleons (neutrons and therefore) different, are called isotopes.

A
Z X
Example: An atom consists of 6 electrons 6 protons and therefore (Z = 6) is called
carbon. But we find in nature, carbon has 6 or 8 neutrons, making a total of 12 or 14 nucleons (A
= 12 or 14). If you want to specify which isotope you want to talk, we say carbon 12 (12C noted)
or carbon 14 (14C noted).
 In nature, the number of neutrons is generally at least equal to the number of protons. It is
possible to make cores too rich or neutron deficient, which will disintegrate in another nucleus.
This decay is accompanied by radiation, so when we talk about core isotope or radioactive
element. If the nucleus doesn’t decays spontaneously, it is called stable element.
Protons and neutrons are also made of an internal structure, they consist of quarks. But we stop
here for a description of the small infinitely.

Calculating the mass of an atom:

The mass of an atom in kg is very low. Also, we prefer handling a different unit: the
atomic mass unit (amu) or Dalton (Da). The mass of a neutron or a proton is approximately equal
to 1 Da.
The electron mass is negligible compared with that of core particles (neutrons and
protons) to calculate the mass of an atom (M), simply add up the number of protons (Z) and the
number of neutrons (n) . The mass thus calculated will be expressed in Daltons.

Relationship between atomic mass and number of moles of a given atom:

M = Z + N, where the N- sum of neutrons
On the other hand, 6.023. 1023 protons or neutrons, or one mole of protons or neutrons
weigh about 1 gram. The value of the mass of a mole of atoms of a given element (in grams) will
be exactly the same value as the atomic mass (in Da) of the element.

Reminder:
The mole (mol) is the amount of substance containing as many elementary particles as
there are atoms in 12 grams of carbon 12 (12C). This number of atoms is N, the Avogadro
constant or the Avogadro number. Avogadro's number represents the number of elementary
entities (atoms, ions, molecules ...) contained in one mole of material. This number N has the
value N = 6.023. 1023

Examples:

The atomic mass of hydrogen is 1, meaning that:

- A hydrogen atom has a mass of 1 Da
- One mole of hydrogen atoms has a mass of 1 gram.

The atomic mass of oxygen is 16, which means that:

- An oxygen atom has a mass of 16 Da
- One mole of oxygen atoms has a mass of 16 grams.

The atomic mass of an atom of calcium is 40, which means that:

 - A calcium atom has a mass of 40 Da
- One mole of calcium atoms has a mass of 40 grams.

3. Isotops

Isotopes are the different types of atoms of the same chemical element. The isotopes are

- Similar chemical properties.

- The same atomic number Z, so the same number of electrons and protons so. A number
of different mass. So the number of neutrons differs from one isotope to another.Is called an
isotope by its mass number A: the carbon 12, carbon 14, etc.

Examples:

The isotopes of hydrogen: light hydrogen (or hydrogen - for short), deuterium (or heavy
hydrogen) and tritium; all have one proton and one electron, respectively zero, one or two
neutrons.

Carbon isotopes all have 6 protons and 6 electrons: carbon 12 (6 neutrons), carbon 13 (7
neutrons) and carbon 14 (8 neutrons).

The isotopes of uranium include all 92 electrons and 92 protons. Uranium-235 has 143
neutrons in uranium 238 has 146.

Alfa radiation

It is a particle composed of two protons and two neutrons highly interrelated (helium
nucleus) and animated by a high speed. The issue concerns only the alpha heavy nuclei with an
excess of protons (usually A> 200).

The nucleus son therefore has two protons and two neutrons less. Example, the disintegration of
radium radon:
226 222
Ra ⇒ Rn + α

Alpha radiation is composed of a heavy particle, it is very penetrating, a single sheet of paper can
stop it.
 Fig.2 alfa prticle

β)
Beta radiation (β

It is a high speed electron particle like, and can be ((β+) positron or (β -)) Negatron.

β -) emission - Negatron
(β

For unstable nuclei with excess neutrons, one observes the emission of an electron e- ( β-
)or negaton and an antineutrino and also γ radiation. There is parallel emission of a photon γ
when a neutron becomes a proton. Nevertheless, the core keeps the same number of nucleons
and thus the atomic mass does not change.

e.g.: Potassium-40
40 is a negatron emitter

β +) emission – Positron
(β

For unstable nuclei with an excess of protons, one observes the emission of a positron e +
electron or positron) and a neutrino and also γ radiation. There are parallel
(also called anti-electron
emission of a photon γ , when proton is transformed into a neutron. Nevertheless, the core keeps
the same number of nucleons and thus the atomic mass does not change. The positron is a beta
particle of antimatter released in a matter universe, it disappears quickly annihilate with an
electron, producing two photons.

e.g.: Iodine 131 is a beta + emitter.

Gamma radiation (γ)

It is electromagnetic radiation similar to light but much more energetic. There is talk of
gamma photons. Their program follows generally alpha or beta decay and corresponds to a
rearrangement of the nucleons inside the nucleus freshly transformed.
The photon is a mass less particle, it is very penetrating and are not charged, it interacts with
matter. We need a concrete thickness of cm to attenuate it.

Decay law

The number (dN) of spontaneous nuclear disintegrations occurring in a given amount of

material, and this in an infinitely short time (dT), is proportional to the number of radioactive
atoms present (N) and the decay constant λ ( s-1) which is characteristic of the radioisotope and,
finally, is a function of time (dt):

dN = - λ . N . dt ⇒ dN / dt = - λ . N

By integrating this equation, we determine the number of radioactive elements remaining

at time t, compared to the initial number is given:

Nt = No. e (-λ . t)

No: number of radioactive atoms initially presents.

Nt (or N): number of radioactive atoms present at time t.

The radionuclide (or radionuclide) is transformed into N radionuclide "son" (D)

according to the equation: Nt = No . e (-λ . t) The radionuclide son D appears together with the
radioactive decay of radionuclide N according to equation :

D = No . ( 1 - e (-λ . t) )
 Radioactive nuclei

Fig. 3 The decay process.

The half-life:
The half-life
life (T1/2) of a given radioisotope is the time for which half the atoms initial
disappear. Is the time required for half the radioactive atoms initially present had undergone
disintegration.

Thus, after a time T (half), we have:

NT = No / 2 = No . e (-λ . T)

e (-λ . T) = 1/2

(λ . T) = Ln 2

T = 0,693 / λ

λ= 0,693 / T
 The activity of a radionuclide
radionuclide:
The activity (A) of a radioisotope is the number of disintegrations that occur per unit time
(usually the second), and this, when considering a given amount of this radioactive element. The
activity thus represents the decay rate of radionuclide:

A= dN / dt

It should be notedd that the activity of a radionuclide decreases by half after a half-life
half
(after a time T).
The unit which expresses the activity of a radionuclide is the Becquerel (Bq). 1 Bq = 1
disintegration per second (dps). The Becquerel is the unit of radioactivity of the International
System.
Another unit is used: it is the Curie (Ci): 1 Ci = 3.7 x 1010 Bq (corresponding to the
activity of one gram of radium).

1 Bq = 1 decay/second = 2,7 x 10-11 Ci = 27 pCi

1 Ci = 3,7 x 1010 Bq = 37 GBq
1 mCi = 3,7 x 107 Bq = 37 MBq
1 Ci = 3.7 × 104 Bq = 37
 II. EFFECTS OF RADIATION ON MATTER

The effects of radiation on matter are very complicated because they depend on the
radiation and studied the material concerned.
Since it is impossible to formalize these interactions radiation-matter on a case by case
basis, usually one studies the energy deposited in the material to quantify. This is called the
absorbed dose (AD). We therefore defined the gray (Gy) as a unit of energy (joule) deposited
per kilogram of matter: 1 Gy = 1J/kg. More energy is deposited, the greater the radiation
interacted with matter. The rad equivalent to the old unit: 1 Gy = 100 rad.
When the radiation field is composed of human tissue, we try to reflect the nature of
radiation in terms of likely damage it can create. Is assigned a multiplier k depends on the nature
of radiation and takes into account the difference in radiation / contamination. For example, in
the case of contamination, k is chosen equal to 1 for gamma radiation and 10 for alpha radiation.
This is called equivalent dose absorbed (EAD) and the unit is the sievert (Sv): 1 Sv = 1 Gy * k.
The old unit was the rem: 1 Sv = 100rem.
It is clear that direct measurement of dose or dose equivalent is very difficult. We
therefore resort to approximations.

III. DETECTION OF RADIATION

Particle detectors are the basis of the diagnostic use of ionizing radiation and dosimetry.
Some detectors allow detection of individual particles and others allow only a global measure of
the energy given to the matter by a large number of particles but the two classes of sensors use
the properties of excitation or ionization radiation.
The detector used in Radiometry is called scintillation detector (scintillation counter). In
scintillation detector, energy for an individual radioactive phenomenon is transformed into an
electrical pulse and amplified by an electronic device.

Fig. 4 Scintillation counter

 The detector used is a scintillator, NaI crystal doped with Tl impurities. Its shape is
almost completely surrounds and the radioactive source studied. Shielding (lead castle) allows
reducing the background noise and the effective protection of the experimenter.
Behind the crystal lies an electron photomultiplier tube (PM).
A photocathode is the first element of the PM where the light became by external
photoelectric effect, electrons.
1. γ incident photons transfer their energy to electrons from the detector;
2. in their travel these electrons lose their kinetic energy by shock and excite the atoms of
the crystal;
3. the ensuing decay results in a fluorescence radiation in the purple: the phenomenon of
scintillation (emitting light). The number of scintillation photons is directly proportional to
energy loss of photons in the γ crystal;
4. fluorescence photons reach the photocathode of the PM. By photoelectric effect they
tear electrons that are instantly quicken up by the first stage of the PM.
PM emission multiplied by the number of secondary electrons torn from the photocathode. Eg
for 10 dynode multiplication factor is 106. At the exit of the PM, the flow of electrons is
collected by an anode connected to a load resistance. The dynodes are powered by high voltage
between 700 and 1200 volts depending on the model.
5. the amplified electrons beam after passing trough dynodes will be acquired by anode .
6. from anode the signal arrive at the preamplifier, the preamplifier makes it possible to
transfer the electric pulse without distortion. The voltage pulse delivered by the amplifier has a
solid scintillation detector is used for scintigraphic imaging or particle counters.

In photodosimetry detectors are the films that serve as dosimeters for monitoring
individual workers using ionizing radiation. These detectors, the oldest known, consist of micro
grains of silver halide suspended in gelatin film.
These detectors consumables (only used once) function has three steps:
1. exposure - the particle detection of halide ions to tear electrons that will neutralize
silver ions
2. revelation - the emulsion is subjected to the action of a reducing agent that reduces the
Ag + ions to metallic silver
3. Fasteners - ions were removed without reducing Ag + in the form of soluble
complexes.
 Measuring the radioactivity.

Measure the activity of an unknown source γ

the count rate is proportional to the activity of γ radiation source

  ·

k- is a factor which is given by the type and energy of radiation and the detector model
A - is the activity of a source of γ radiation
For a γ radiation source was studied (activity unknown), we need a standard source -
Ae(with known activity in a certain time)and a second source Ai (activity unknown),
We can write the rate equation for counting these two sources of radiation

   1

   2

consider a Vb -(count rate for background). Vb also known as natural radiation has three
origins:

1. cosmic rays produce an exposure that increases with altitude;

2. radioisotopes in the soil (mainly radon);
3. the body's natural radionuclides (mainly 40 K)

In this case:

V = Vt – Vb (3)

(1) and (2) became

     4

     5

Ratio:

   

   
 )

Handling

The measuring chain is formed of:

The measuring chain is already running when you arrive in dirty lab.
1. introduce the bottle notes "standard source" in the lead castle;
2. press the button "NULL" and after that the button "Start / Stop" (co
(counting
unting time is set at 1
minute and the device stop automatically). Note the value of the coucount
nt rate in pulses per minute
(Ve);
3. put the bottle "standard source" with the bottle notes "source unknown";
4. press on the button "NULL" after the "Start / Stop
Stop".
". Note the value of the count rate (Vi);
5. to measure the value of Vb made a measurement with the lead castle empty;
6. calculate the value of Ai knowing that the instantaneous value of Ae must be calculated using
the curve of radioactive decay for the iisotope 99m Tc

1 2

4 3

5
Fig. 5 Diagrammatic representation of
measuring radioactivity device

1. Electric source;
2. Pulse impulse analyzer;
6
7
3. Impulse counter;
4. timer;
5. scintillation counter;
6. γ radiation source;
7. Lead castle.
Fig.6 The decay graph for Tc99m
 VI. Measuring the half-thicknes for Pb, Al, Cu

Measure half the thickness ( G ½) for different metals (Al, Cu, Pb)

Standards for protection against ionizing radiation to protect the general population and people
who use R I. In this case we use partition and screens that are located around a source ionizing
radiation. To know what metal is best for the radiation used half the thickness. The thickness is
half the thickness of a metal that reduces to half the intensity of γ radiation source.
The apparatus is the same as handling 1.
The aim is to measure the count rate for different thicknesses of metals.

The measuring chain

1. introduce the bottle notes "standard source" in the lead castle;

2. press the button "NULL" and after that the button "Start / Stop" (counting time is set to 1
minute and the device stop automatically). Note the value of the count rate (V0);
3. introduce a metal plate known thickness and press the button "NULL" and after that the button
"Start / Stop". Note the value of the count rate at this thickness (V1)
4. adds another plate with the same metal (the thickness increases) and make a new measurement
of the counting speed (V2). Note the value.
5. you do the same operation for different thicknesses (V3 and V4)
6. record values in the table:

metal thickness (mm) Impulse

counts (count/min)

Al 0 V0

E1 V1

E2 V2

E3 V3

E4 V4

The same work for other metals: lead and cupper having another tables for each.

With the values you got you can draw the curves of decay of the count rate with increasing the
metal thickness:
V0

Counts/min

/2

G1/2 G1/2 G1/2 Thickness (mm)

Pb Al Cu
Fig. 7 Graph for half-thickness

V. Photodosimetry

The effects of ionizing radiation depend primarily on the energy absorbed per unit
volume by the irradiated tissue. Dosimetry aims to quantify this energy to:
- estimate the potential hazard of diagnostic techniques in vivo;
- optimize treatment protocols for radiation therapy;
- establishing radiation protection standards individually or collectively.
Widely used for individual radiation dosimeters are movies and helmets are compulsory
for those who professionally use of ionizing radiation. The processes that make these films for
radiation detectors have been explained before.
The films are partly hidden by a mask that stops β radiation and allows the estimation of
single dose X-or γ (figure below):
 window

Plastic box film

metalic
filtres

Fig 8. Photodosimeter

Every month, the film, which was hanging on his chest, is developed and its reading is
compared to transmission standards which allow an estimation of absorbed doses. You can also
use a graphical method for obtaining estimates of absorbed doses.

Estimation of absorbed doses

With the help of a photometric setup in the meeting of practical worck you measure the
doses absorbed by two exposed films. The installation of photometry is presented below:

3 5
2

Fig. 9 Photometric device:

1. Electrical source;
2. Light source
3. diaphragm;
6 4. place for films;
4 5. photocell;
6. luxmeter

1
 Steps to measure:

1. Connect the facility has a voltage source;

2. Introduce a standard film (which had been exposed) into the bracket (4);
3. Check this value on the light meter is 100 divisions;
4. Enter an exposed film into the holder;
5. Note the value indicated by the light meter;
6. With the help of standard graph estimated absorbed doses;

Write the values in your notebooks