CHE 101 LECTURE 2

Topic 2: Atoms, Molecules and Ions

Quick review:

i. An atom consists of subatomic particles; protons, neutrons and electrons

ii. Protons and neutrons occupy a very small region at the centre of the atom-the nucleus.
Because of the very small volume occupied by protons and neutrons, the nucleus has a
very high density.

iii. Electrons are distributed in the 3-dimensional space around the nucleus-rather like a
cloud.[electrons do not circle the nucleus in a 2-dimentional circular path as previously
thought]

Summary of properties of subatomic particles

#
Symbol Relative charge Absolute Mass *Relative Mass
(g) (amu)

Electron e- -1 9.109 x 10-28g 5.486 x 10-4

Proton p +1 1.673 x 10-24g 1.0073

Neutron n 0 1.675 x 10-24g 1.0087

*1 Atomic Mass Unit (amu) is defined as exactly 1/12 of the mass of one atom of the carbon-12
isotope (remember all the mass of an atom is in the nucleus). Since the nucleus of a C-12 atom
contains 6 protons and 6 neutrons (and a proton has the same mass as a neutron), then the mass of
each of the nuclear particles is 1 amu.

# The actual charge of an electron is 1.602 x 10-19Coulombs

1 amu = 1.66054 x 10-24g

The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom = # of electrons outside the nucleus  atoms are
electrically neutral.

Atomic Model

In 1913 Niels Bohr and Ernest Rutherford introduced the solar-system model of the tom in which the
positively charged nucleus containing protons and neutrons is surrounded by negatively charged
electrons orbiting the nucleus in circular paths. Before this, several other models had been proposed
to describe the structure of the atom and to explain certain observed physical phenomena (Read on
these for historical perspective). The modern model is an improvement of the Rutherford–Bohr
model primarily using results that were obtained from quantum physics. More of this will be covered
later in Topic 6.
The solar system model of the atom (Source: http://chemistry.tutorcircle.com/inorganic-
chemistry/rutherford-model-of-the-atom.htm)

Atoms are so small in size that it is not practical to use common units. The sizes of atoms range
between 1 x 10-10 and 5 x 10-10m , ie 100-500 pm.

The practical unit of measure for atomic dimensions is the Ångstrom (Å) = 10-10m.

Atomic diameters range from 1 to 5Å, and nuclear diameters are in the order of 10 -4Å. So, the
diameter of the atom is 10,000 to 50,000 times larger than the nuclear diameter, meaning that most
of the atom is empty space!

Exercise: The diameter of a silver (Ag) atom is 2.88 Å. How many Ag atoms would have to e lined
together side-by-side to equal 1 cm?

Atomic Numbers, Mass Numbers and Isotopes

Definitions:

 Atomic Number, Z :- The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom. Every element is
identified by its atomic number.
 Nucleons :- Protons and neutrons making up the nucleus. The sum of protons and neutrons
give the mass number, A of the atom/element (note that the is not identical to atomic
weight listed in the Periodic Table)
 For a neutral atom of a given element, the number of protons and electrons are the same
but two atoms of the same element can have different numbers of neutrons. Such atoms
 are said to be isotopic to each other. Isotopes are therefore atoms of the same elements
which differ in the number of neutrons in their nuclei (ie they differ in their atomic masses)

Nuclear Symbols

Nuclear symbols are a convenient and concise system of presenting information about a given
element, including differentiating between isotopes of the same element. The schematic below
shows how a nuclear symbol is written, using Li as an example.

Source: https://staff.aub.edu.lb/~hyaghi/LessonSamples/Atom/images/ChemicalSymbol.jpg

 So for isotopes of a given element the difference is in the nucleon number, A resulting from
the difference in the number of neutrons in the nucleus.

Source: https://socratic.org/chemistry/nuclear-chemistry/isotope-notation

 Isotopic atoms have the same chemical properties because these are determined only by the
atomic number (number of protons, and therefore electrons for a neutral atom).

Atomic Weight

As indicated earlier, atomic weight is defined in terms of atomic mass units, amu, which is defined
as 1/12 of the mass of a 12C atom.

1 amu = 1.66054 x 10-24g

The definition of amu gives the conversion factor between amu and g, and therefore if we know
one, we can convert to the other.

The masses listed in the Periodic Table of The Elements are average atomic masses (relative to C-12)
given in atomic mass units. For example, the mass of Fe is given as 55.85, meaning that 1 atom of Fe
(on average) has a weight of 55.85 amu.

This can be converted to grams easily using the conversion factor 1 amu = 1.66054 x 10-24g!

What do we mean by average atomic weight of Cl is 35.45, for example?

Chlorine exists as two isotopes, Cl-35, whose exact weight is 34.9689 and Cl-37, with
the exact weight of 36.9695. The natural abundances are 76.0% for Cl-35, and 24.0%
for Cl-37.

The average atomic weight is a weighted average of these abundances:

Average atomic weight = (34.9689 amu x 76.0%)+ (36.9695 amu x 24%)

The Periodic Table = (34.9689 amu x 0.760)+ (36.9695 amu x 0.24)
The chemical behavior (properties) of anamu
= (26.576364 element is determined
+ 8.87268 by the
amu) = 35.4490 amu number of electrons
is possesses, as well as the arrangement of those electrons within the atom. The atomic
number Z is the number of protons in the atom. With addition = 35.45
of amu
every(toproton
4 sf) to the
nucleus, a new element is produced which is heavier than the previous one, and also has

The simplest atom is hydrogen (H), with one proton and one electron. Addition of one more
proton (and electron) produces a different element, helium (He) containing two protons and
two electrons. This process (conceptually) can be repeated to produce all the other
elements.

Note that generally, the number of neutrons in the nucleus also increases progressively but
not always in a matching manner to the number of protons.

For example, the atomic number of Cl is 17, meaning it has 17 protons. But in
nature, 24% of the atoms of Cl have a mass of 37 amu while 76% of the atoms
have a mass of 24%.

Cl-35 has 35-17 = 18 neutrons but Cl-37 has 37-17 = 20 netrons!

Both types of atoms (isotopes) are atoms of the same element (Cl) and they
react in exactly the same way, because they have the same number of
protons and electrons.
Elements are arranged systematically in a table called the Periodic Table (Read about the interesting
history of how it was developed). The order of arrangement of the elements in the PT is based on
the Atomic Number (Z). Arranging the elements in order of Z leads to certain periodic properties, ie
properties that repeat themselves in a regular pattern.

The PT is shown below.

Source: http://www.m2c3.com/chemistry/VLI/M1_Topic2/M1_Topic2_print.html

Description of PT

The PT is arranged in 4 major blocks. The first block (consisting of the two columns containing Li and
Be) is called the s-block. The columns with the elements Sc to Zn make up the d-block, while all the
columns containing the elements B to Ne constitute the p-block.

The fourth block (at the bottom) is called the f-block and will be discussed at a later stage. The
meaning of alphabets s,p,d and f will be explained in Topic 6 (Lectures 23-30).

Some features of the PT

 Elements in the same column are said to be in the same group, thus H, Na, K, Rb, Cs and Fr
are all in the same group, while O, S, Se, Te, Po are also in the same but separate group.
 Elements that are in the same group are congeners to each other. The groups in the PT are
numbered 1 to 18 from left to right.

 The rows across from left to right are called periods (this is related to why it is called the
periodic table). The first period consists of H and He only, the third starts with Na and ends
with Ar, while the fourth has a total of 18 elements starting with K and ending with Kr.

Some Observed Trends in the PT

 Atomic Radius:- Moving across from left to right, the radius of the atom decreases.
Within a given group however, the radius of the atom increases. For example,
rBe<rMg<rCa<rSr, etc, where rX means the radius of an atom of X.

 Metallic Character:- Moving across each period from left to right, metallic character
decreases. The elements to the extreme left of the PT are therefore metallic whereas
those to the extreme right are non-metallic (d-block elements are all metallic)

 Ionization Energy:- This is the energy needed to remove the outer electron from the
atom to form a positive ion. The easier it is to remove the electron, the lower the energy
needed. It is more and more difficult to remove the outer electron from the atom as one
moves from the extreme left of the PT to the extreme right. We therefore say that the
ionization energy increases from element to element across the PT from left to right.

 Physical State:- Across a period from left to right, the elements tend to change from
high-boiling-point solids to low-boiling-point liquids or gases

The reasons for these observed trends will be explained more fully later in the course, but you are
encouraged to find the explanations by reading on your own.