Congratulations

And
Welcome
 Inorganic chemistry
1. ATOMIC STRUCTURE
2. NON-METAL I
i. HYDROGEN
ii. OXYGEN
iii. OZONE
iv. WATER
v. NITROGEN
 Atomic structure
1. electron , proton and neutron
2. Concepts of atomic number , mass number , fractional atomic mass, isotopes,
isobars and isotones.
3. Rutherford’s α-ray scattering experiment and nuclear model of atom ,
limitation
4. Bohr’s model of atom and explanation of hydrogen spectra
5. Limitation of Bohr’s model of atom
6. Elementary idea of quantum mechanical model
7. Shape of atomic orbitals
8. Quantum numbers
9. Pauli’s exclusion principle
10.Hund’s rule of maximum multiplicity
11. Aufbau principle and Bohr bury rule
12.Electronic configuration of the atom and ions
 Atom
Democritus , the Greek philosopher suggested that all matter is
composed of tiny , indivisible particles called atoms. The term atom
comes from the greek langauge and means indivisible.
In 1808 A.D . John Dalton published a book “ the theory of
chemical reactivity” in which he had explained the existence of atom
in scientific way.
The small particles that are present in an atom are called
subatomic particles for example, electron, proton and neutron. They
are very indivisible particles.

Atomic structure : the arrangement of fundamental particles i.e .

Electron, Proton and neutron in an atom is called atomic structure.
Electron: an electron is negatively charged particle denoted by
symbol e-
Electron was discovered as a result of study of cathode rays by J.J.
Thomson.
J.J. Thomson determined e/m value of electron (1.76 × 108C /gm).
Millikan determined the charge of electron .It carries a unit
negative charge (-1.6 × 10-19 C).
Mass of electron is 9.11 × 10-31 kg, which is equal to the 1/1837th of
the mass of hydrogen atom.
Proton : an proton is positively charged particle denoted
by symbol p+
E. Goldstein discovered proton on the basis of anode ray
experiment.
It carries a unit positive charge (+1.6 × 10-19 C).
The mass of proton is 1.67 × 10-24 g .
The e / m ratio of proton is 9.58 × 104 C / g
Neutron
Neutrons are neutral particles. It was discovered by Chadwick
(1932). The mass of neutron is 1.675x 10-24 g or 1.008665 amu or u.
4Be +  2He →  6C +  0n
9 4 12 1
Atomic Number
Atomic number of an element corresponds to the total number protons
present in the nucleus or total number of electrons present the neutral
atom. It is denoted by z.
Atomic number (z) = number of proton present in nucleus or
number of electrons

Mass Number or atomic mass (A)

the sum of number of proton and neutron is known as mass number
Mass number of an element(A)
= number of protons(z) + number of neutrons(N)
A= Z + N
N=A–Z
A
Example : an atom is represented by zX or zX   
A
4

2He   or 2He   

4
# calculate the number of proton , electron and neutrons in the
following atoms or ions
40
i. 17Cl 35
ii. 20 Ca ++
 #. Fractional atomic masses:
The atomic mass is fractional due to having two or more
number of isotopes in nature .
For example:
chlorine element has two isotopes i.e Cl-35 and Cl-37 .
But the atomic weight of chlorine is neither 35 nor 37
nor the average weight of two isotopes 36. in fact the
nautral abundance of Cl-35 and Cl-37 are 75% and 25%
respectively.
So, the average atomic weight of chlorine will be
35 × 75 + 37 × 25
= = 35.5
75 +25
 
 Isotopes :
Isotopes are atoms that have same atomic number but different
mass numbers. Isotopes have the same atomic number because
the number of protons inside their nuclei remains the same.
They have different mass numbers because they have different
numbers of neutrons. Eg. Hydrogen exists in 3 isotopic form
i.e protium(1H1), deuterium(1H2), and tritium(1H3).
Isobars:
Isobars are atoms that have same atomic mass (Greek isos
equal + Greek baros weight) but different atomic numbers.
Isobars have different atomic numbers because they have
different numbers of protons. They have the same atomic mass
because they have just enough neutrons to make the same total
of nucleons. Eg: 18Ar40 , 20Ca 40
Isotones :
Isotones are atoms that have different atomic number and
different mass numbers but same number of neutron.

Isotones At. No. Mass no. No. of e- No. of p+ No. of n0

6 C14 6 14 6 6 8

7 N15 7 15 7 7 8

8 O16 8 16 8 8 8
Atomic models:
The structure of atom was developed after the discovery of sub-
particles by different scientist:
1. Thomson’s atomic model:
J.J. Thomson proposed a simple model to an atom known as
Thomson’s watermelon model. Thomson considered an atom to
be sphere of uniformly positive charge into which negatively
charged particle electrons were embedded like seeds in
watermelon.
Rutherford’s model of atom:
Rutherford’s atomic model of atom is based on the α- ray
scattering experiments.
Rutherford’s α- ray scattering experiments
In α- ray scattering experiments, α- particles(He++) emitted
from radioactive substance were bombarded on a thin gold
foil and the path of these particles were detected by
placing a movable screen coated with zinc sulphide
around the gold foil. When α-particle strike the zinc
sulphide screen, they produces a flash of light which can
be detected by examining different portion of the screen.
The following observations were made on the results
obtained.
(i) Most of the α-particle passed through the gold foil
straight without any deviation.
(ii) Some of α-particles were deflected through small
angles.
(iii) Very few α-particles were deflected through angles
more than 90° or bounced back to the same direction.
 
Figure: Rutherford’s alpha-ray scattering experiment
The following conclusions were drawn from the Rutherford’s scattering
experiment.
a. Most of the α- particles passed straight through the foil without any
deflection. This shows that most of the space inside the atom is empty or
hollow.
b. Some of the α- particles suffered deflected through small angles. It
implies that there is heavenly positive charged mass present at the centre
of atom.
c. Since the number of α- particles which bounced back was very small,
hence, the volume occupied by the nucleus is very small as compared to
the total volume of the atom.
On the basis of the α- particles scattering experiment and the conclusion
drawn from it. Rutherford proposed the following nuclear model of
atom.
atom consists of a positively charged nucleus at which entire mass is
concentrated and its size is extremely small as compared to the size of
atom . Most of the space between the nucleus and revolving electrons is
empty. The centrifugal force of revolving electron is balanced by
electrostatic force of attraction between the electron and the nucleus.
The drawbacks of Rutherford scattering experiment are as follows:
(i) According to classical electrodynamics, when a charged particle
like electron is accelerated , it will loose energy by emitting
radiation. In Rutherford’s nuclear atom, continuously revolving
electron must loose energy continuously and the orbit become
smaller and smaller and finally collapse with nucleus . But
electron never collapses in this way.

(ii) It could not explain the line spectra of H – atom and

discontinuous spectrum nature.
Bohr’s model of atom:
In 1913, Niel’s Bohr modified the Rutherford’s atomic model
of atom. Rutherford’s nuclear model simply stated that atom
had a nucleus and negatively negatively charged electrons
were present outside the nuclues. It couldnot the position of
electron and the stability of atom. To overcome these
drawbacks of Rutherford’s atomic model, Bohr’s proposed a
model of an atom.
The main assumptions of Bohr’s model of atom are
1. An atom consists of positively charged nucleus in the
centre which is surrounded by negatively charged electron.

2. The electron revolve around the nucleus in fixed circular

path called orbit. Each orbit have fixed amount of energy .
Such orbit with definite amount of energy are known as
stationary state or energy level. They are represented by
1,2,3,4 or by symbol K,L,M,N.
3. Only those orbit are permitted for the revolution of
electron around nucleus having angular momentum
equal to the integral multiple of h/2π.
According to Bohr,
mvr = nh
2π

Where, m = mass of electron

V= velocity of electron
r = radius of orbit
h = planck’s constant=6.62×10-27ergsec or 6.62 ×10-34Jsec
n= an integer = 1,2,3,4 etc
This postulate , therefore introduce the concept of
quantization of angular momentum.
4. Energy of an orbit or electron increases with increasing
the distance of orbit from the nucleus of atom. E2>E1
5. Energy is absorbed or radiated only when the electron
jump from one orbit to another orbit . When energy is
supplied to an atom , electron absorbs energy and jump
to higher energy level. As soon as supplied source of
energy is cut , electron jump back to the original level.
The magnitude of energy radiated or absorbed is equal
to the difference in energy of two different energy level.
If E1 is the energy in 1 orbit and E2 in the 2. then change
in energy E2-E1 is given by
E2-E1 = hν where ν = frequency
Δ E = hν
Success of Bohr’s atomic model:
The main success of the Bohr’s model are:
1. Bohr’s model explained the stability of an atom.
2. Bohr’s atomic model derived relation to calculate energy
and radii of orbit in hydrogen or single electron system.

2π2
En= - 2 2 me 4

nh
n2h2
rn = 4π2me2

3. Bohr’s model of atom explained successfully the atomic

spectrum of hydrogen atom.
Atomic spectra:
The electron of atom may absorb or radiate energy of certain
wavelength which can be recorded in the form of bands or
lines called atomic spectra.
1. Absorption spectra
2. Emission spectra
Interpretation of hydrogen spectra on the basis of Bohr’s
theory of Atomic structure.:
According to the Bohr’s there are various energy levels
arranged in the increasing order of their energy around the
nucleus of H- atom. The one electron of H is present in its
lowest energy level , this is called ground state electronic
configuration.
When an electric discharge is passed through a sample of
hydrogen gas at low pressure and high voltage , the hydrogen
molecules split into hydrogen atom . The electron of such H-
atom absorb different amount of energy and get excited .
These excited electron is promoted to different energy level,
according to the amount of energy absorbed .
Such excited states are unstable and hence the electron from
higher energy level jump back to lower energy level . When
the electron comes back to the its ground state , the extra
amount of energy gained by it is radiated in the form of
radiation which give rise to line spectra.
These spectral line are grouped into five series which are
explained as follows:
1. Lyman series: when electron jump from any one of the
higher energy state to ground state , lyman series of line
obtained. It lies in UV region.
2. Balmer series: when electron jump from any one of the
higher energy state to 2nd state ,balmer series of line
obtained. It lies in visible region.
3. Paschen series: when electron jump from any one of
the higher energy state to 3rd state , paschen series of
line obtained. It lies in infrared region.
Similarly, brackett and pfund series are obtained by
electronic transition from higher energy level to 4th and
5th energy levels respectively.
The wavelength of the light emitted depend upon the
energy difference between higher and lower energy
level.The wavelength of different lines of series can be
calculate by using equation for the first time derived by
Bohr in the form of .
1 1 1
λ
= R ( n 2
- n 2
) where, λ = wavelength,
1 2
R= Rydberg’s constant = 1.09 × 105cm-1
n = lower energy level, n = higher energy level
Figure: origin of line spectra of hydrogen
1. Calculate the wavelength of the first line of the
balmer series.( R= 109700cm-1)
Solution:
For the first line of the balmer series , we have
n1= 2 and n2=3
We have,
# calculate the wavelength of the second
1 1 1
= R ( 2 - ) line of the lyman series and express the
λ n1 n22
result in nanometer(nm)
1 1
= 109700 ( 22 - 32 )

1 1
= 109700( - )
4 9
λ = 6.563 × 10-5 cm
Limitation of Bohr’s atomic model
1. Bohr’s model of atom could not explain the line spectra of
atoms containing more than one electron called
multielectron atom.

2. This theory doesnot explain the splitting of spectral line

into the finer lines under the influence of magnetic effect
(zeeman effect) and electric effect (stark’s effect)

3. Bohr’s model of atom cannot explained the geometrical

shapes of molecules..
 Quantum mechanical model of atom
Dual nature of electrons (de-Broglie concept)
In 1924, a french physicist, de-Broglie suggested that just as
light has both particle and wave like nature , so also all
material particles in motion have dual character. They can
behave as particle as well as wave. This was
experimentally verified by Davisson and Germer while
studying the diffraction of electron by nickel crystals.

According to the de-Broglie , the wave length ‘λ’ associated

with a particle of mass ‘m’ , moving with the velocity ‘v’ is
given by the relation λ= h/mv, where h= planck’s
constant.
Note :from Einstein equation:
E=mc2 ………..(1)
Energy of a photon can be calculated by planck’s
equation
E= h ν………..(2)

From 1 and 2
mc2 = h ν (ν = c/ λ)

mc = h/ λ

λ= h/mc
de-Broglie concept about dual nature of matter is applicable
to all material objects but it is significant only for
microscopic particles. It losses its importance when
applied to macroscopic bodies. This is because the matter
waves associated with macroscopic bodies are to small to
be measured.( i.e λ α 1/m)

Note :
Circumference of orbit
2πr = nλ……….(1)
From de-Broglie equation,
λ= h/mv………..(2)
From 1 and 2

2πr = n h/mv
mvr = nh/ 2π
 Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle
Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle states that “it is impossible
to determine the exact position and exact momentum of a
small particles accurately at the same time”

Mathematically , if Δx and Δp are the uncertainties principle

in position and momentum respectively, then,
Δx. Δp ≥ h/4π
Δx. mΔv ≥ h/4π (since p=mv)

Δx. Δv ≥ h/4πm……..(1)
Equation 1 is final expression of Heisenberg’s principle.
 thus, it is impossible to determined the exact position and
momentum of an electron accurately at a time. Hence,
Bohr’s model of atom needs modification on the basis of
uncertainty principle. A correct theory can be only state the
probability of finding the electron at a particular region of
a given energy inside the atom.

# why it is not applicable for larger body?

The product of Δx. Δp is negligible for the objects having a
large mass this means that the position and momentum of a
large body can be determined at a time . Thus, it is not
applicable for a larger body.
 Probability concept
According to the Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle , sue to
wave nature of electron , we cannot describe the exact path
followed by an electron in an atom any time. But according to
the Bohr’s theory; the electron regarded or having fixed
position of definite energy i.e the electron revolve in well
defined circular orbit is no longer correct in order to described
the position in the atom , we can only predict the probability
of finding an electron with a probable velocity in a particular
region of a space around the nucleus . It means we can only
predict where an electron mostly likely to be found.
2n2
S- orbital: spherical in shaped
P-orbital: dumbbell shaped
 Quantum number
The intergal number which is used to indicate the size of
orbits and shape and orientation of orbitals and spin of
electron for an atom is called quantum number or simply the
integers which are used to specify the position and energy of
an electron.They are four types. They are
1. Principal quantum number
2. Azimuthal quantum number
3. Magnetic quantum number
4. Spin quantum number
 Principal Quantum number
The quantum number which is used to indicate the size and
energy of orbit is called principal quantum number. It
represented by symbol ‘n’. It can have only positive integer
values, n= 1,2,3,4 and also designated by letters K,L,M,Netc

The electron holding capacity of these energy levels can be

calculated by Bohr-Bury rule. 2n2.

For K-shell. n=1, maximum number of electron , 2n2= 2.12 = 2

For L-shell n= 2, maximum number of electron , 2n2= 2.22 = 8

For M- shell, n= 3, maximum number of electron , 2n2= 2.32 =
18
 Azimuthal Quantum number
The quantum number which is used to indicate the shape of
orbital or number of subshell is called azimuthal quantum
number. It represented by symbol ‘l’. It value ranges from 0 to
(n-1). indicate
0=s spherical shape
1=p dumbbell shape
2=d double dumbbell shape
3 =f complex

n l subshell no. of subshell

1 0 1s 1
2 0,1 2s,2p 2
3 0,1,2 3s,3p,3d 3
4 0,1,2,3 4s, 4p, 4d, 4f 4
 Magnetic Quantum number
The quantum number which is used to indicate the orientation
of an electron in an atomic orbital is called magnetic quantum
number. It represented by symbol ‘m’. The value of m ranges
from –l to +l through 0. the total number of m value is given
by (2l+1).
l m No. of orbitals
0 0 1
1 -1,0,+1 3
2 -2,-1,0,+1.+2 5
3 -3,-2,-1,0,+1.+2,+3 7
 # what are n, l and m value for 3p ?
# for n= 4 write the possible values of l and m?
Spin Quantum number
The quantum number which is used to indicate the spin of an
electron in an atomic orbital is called spin quantum number. It
represented by symbol ‘s’. It has only two value.
For clockwise spin, value of s is + ½
For anticlockwise spin, value of s is – ½
Note :
Number of subshell in a shell = number of shell
Number of orbitals in a shell = n2
Number of orbitals in a subshell = (2l+1)
Number of electrons in an orbitals = 2 e-
Number of electrons in a subshell = 2(2l+1)

n = 1, l = 0 to (n-1) = 0 =s
For l= 0 m =0 s = +1/2, -1/2
n=3 l=0,1,2
L= 1 m = -1,0,+1
For m= -1 s= +1/2,-1/2
For m=0 , s= +1/2,-1/2For m=+1 , s= +1/2,-1/2
L=2 m = -2,-1,0+1+2
m = -2, s = +1/2,-1/2
 Aufbau principle
According to this principle the orbitals having the lowest value
of (n+l) has the lowest energy and hence is filled first with
electrons (the energy level of various orbitals are determined
by the sum of principal (n) and azimuthal (l) quantum number
is known as n+l rule.) . It is given by following points.
1. Orbitals are filled in order of increasing value of (n+l).
Eg: for 4s orbitals (4+0) =4 and for 3d orbital(3+2)=5 .
Hence, 4s orbital is filled up first before 3d
2. For the subshells having the same values of (n+l) the one
having lower values of n is filled first
Eg: 2p (2+1)= 0 , 3s(3+0)=3 here, 2p has lower n value so 2p
is filled up first,
 Bohr Bury rule:
The distribution of electron in different shells is governedby
1s the following Bohr- Bury rule.
2s 2p 1. The maximum number of electrons that only shell can
3s 3p 3d accommodate is equal to 2n2 rule where n is the principle
4s 4p 4d 4f quantum number.
5s 5p 5d 5f 2. The outermost shell cannot have more than 8 electrons and
6s 6p 6d next to the outer most shell cannot have more than 18
7s 7p electrons
3. It is not necessary for an orbit to be completely filled
before the next orbit starts filling. Infact a new begins when
the outermost orbit gets 8 electrons.
4. The outermost orbit cannot have more than 2 and next to
outermost orbit cannot have more than 9 electrons so long
as long as the next inner orbit has not received the
maximum number of electrons as required by 1 and 2
# an atom has 2 electrons in k –shell , 8 electrons in second
shell and 2 electrons in M-shell . If so find out the following
a. Electronic configuration of an atom
b. Total number of principal quantum number
c. Total number of subshell
d. Total number of s- electrons 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s1 3d5

# an atom has 20 electrons . Find out

i. Its atomic number and total number of p-electrons
ii. Value of azimuthal and magnetic quantum number of 19 th
electron.

# write the electronic configuration of

iii. K+ ii. Cr iii. Cl- iv. Al3+
Pauli exclusion principle: this principle state that “no two
electrons of an atom can have same set up for four quantum
number”

This means of an atom have more than 1 electron and three

quantum number may be similar for these electrons but four
quantum number must be difficult.
Hund’s rule of maximum multiplicity;
This rule state that “ the filling of electrons in different orbitals
occurs with degeneracy of atomic orbitals”
this means that electrons or filled at first singly then pairing
occurs in atomic orbitals.
Eg:
3d5 3d5
1s 2s 2p
2 2 4

right wrong

When the electron fill up in subshells having more than one

orbitals each orbital is filled up first by single electrons with same
spin followed by pairing with opposite spins”
1. Assign the values of the quantum number n, l, and m for the outermost
electrons in potassium atom?
2. An atom has 2 electrons in first shell , 8 electrons in second shell and 2
electron in the third shell . Find out the following
i. Total number of protons
ii. Number of principal quantum number
iii. Number of subshell
iv. Number of orbits
v. Number of p- electrons
vi. Number of paired electrons
vii. Number of unpaired electrons
viii.Valency of atom’
ix. Number of orbitals
3. An atom has 2 electrons in first shell , 8 electrons in second shell and
3electron in the third shell . Find out the following
a. Total number of principal quantum number
b. Total number of orbitals
c. Total number of s- electrons
4. Write the values of magnetic quantum number for each orbital
present in 4th shell of an atom.
5.An atomic orbitals has n = 2, what are the possibles values of l,
m and s?
6. Calculate the atomic number and number of p- electrons of an
atom , whose valence shell electronic configuration is 4s2?
7. What are the observations of Rutherford’s scattering
experiment ? And write the conclusion drawn from the
observation?