@BT

Atomic structure Neutron

proton

Bishal Thapa
rhydam06@gmail.com 1
 Coursecontent @BT

1. Rutherford’s atomic model with limitations.

2. Bohr’s atomic model and its importance.
3. The origin of hydrogen spectra with the help of Bohr’s atomic model
4.The general idea about de-Broglie wave equation and probability.
5.Quantum numbers and Planck’s quantum theory.
6.The concept and general shapes of Atomic orbitals (Shape of s, p, d and f-
orbital).
7. Rules for filling of electrons in an atomic orbital.
(i) Hund’s rule of maximum multiplicity.
(ii) Pauli’s exclusion principle.
(iii)Aufbau principle and its limitation.
8. Electronic configuration of atom and ions (Cations and Anions)
9. Important questions for exam.

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 History of atom @BT

Dalton’s Atomic theory

He suggest that all the
John Dalton [1808]
matters are made up of
smallest indivisible
particles
called ‘atom’.

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 Dalton’s atomic model @BT

All matters are made up of millions of small particles called as atom.

The word atom has been derived from Greek language ‘atomas’ which
means smallest unit (a=not, tomas=cut). The concept of atom for the
first time was given by an English chemist John Dalton in 1808, which is
called Dalton’s atomic theory. Thebasic postulates of this theoryare;
1. All the matters are made up of small particles called as atom.
2. Atoms are indivisible and indestructive units with neutral
nature.
3. Atoms are regarded as spherical unit which can neither be
created nor bedestroyed.
4. The atoms of the same element are identical in all respect.
5. Two or more atoms undergoes chemical combination to form
new compound in a simple whole number ratio. 4
Limitations of Dalton’s atomic model

1. It could not explain radioactive phenomena like the existance of

isotopes and isobars
2. It could not distinguish between the smallest unit of elements and
compounds.
3. The idea of compound atoms was not exactly applicable.
4. It could not explain the law of gaseous volume ( Gay Lussac’s law)
5. It failed to explain the cause of chemical reaction.

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 Modification of Dalton’s atomic model

1. The atoms are no longer considerd to be individual.

Example : Consists sub atomic particles i.e. Electron, proton and neutron

2. Atoms of same elements may not be similar in all respect.

Example: Isotopes- Cl-35 and Cl-37

3. Atoms of different elements may be similar in one or more respect.

Example: Isobars-Ar-40 and Ca-40

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4. The ratio in which atoms unite ma be fixed and integral but not be
simple:
Example: The ratio of C,H and O in C12H22O11 is 12:22:11 which is not
simple

5. Atoms of one elements can be changed into atoms of other elements:

7N14 +₂⁴He⁺⁺ (α-ray)

8O17 + H1
1

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Fundamental or sub-atomic particles ofatom

Sub-atomic particles Symbols Mass(kg) Charge Discovery
(coulomb)

9.1x10⁻³¹ kg (-1.6x10⁻¹⁹C)
Electron e- Joseph John
Thomson (1897)
1.672x10⁻²⁷kg (+1.6x10⁻¹⁹C)
Proton P+ Eugen Goldstein
(1886)
1.676x10⁻²⁷ kg zero (Chargeless)
Neutron n0 James
Chadwick (1932)

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Atomic models
To explain the structure of atom, different atomic
models have been proposed.
1. Thomson’s Atomic models
2. Rutherford’s Atomic models
3. Bohr’s Atomic models

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1. Thomson’s Atomic models
After the discovery of electron, proton and neutron, the first atomic
model was proposed by J.J. Thomson in 1898. Thomson considered an
atom to be positively charged sphere where electrons were embedded
like seeds in watermelon. Therefore, this model is also called
Thomson’s watermelon model. This model is also known as Thomson’s
plum pudding model as electrons were embebbed like plum in rice
pudding. This model could not explain many experimental and
theoretical facts thus discarded soon.

Fig: Thomson’s watermelon or plum-pudding model of atom.

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Alpha particle (α-ray) ?

It is double charged helium ion
having atomic number 2 and mass
number 4. It is denoted by the

<
symbol ₂⁴He⁺⁺ or He⁺⁺. For
example,
₉₂U²³⁸ ⟶₉₀Th²³⁴ +₂⁴He⁺⁺ (α-ray)

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Rutherford’s atomic model
Rutherford’s gold foil model
Rutherford’s alpha ray scattering experiment
Experiment:
This model was put forward by Ernest Rutherford in 1911
with the help of an alpha(α)-particles scattering experiment . In this
experiment, he bombarded a thin sheet of gold foil (0.004 cm
thickness) with α-particles which were obtained from the
sources of α-particles which was taken inside the lead block, the
beam of α-particles made narrower by using lead slit in the path. The
scattered alpha particles were observed on the surface of circular
ZnS screen as they produce tiny flashes which were detected by a
movable microscope. 12
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Gold foil

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Observation
a. Most of the α-particles (99%) directly passed through
gold foil without any deviation.
b. Few alpha particles were deflected through small
angles.
c. Very few alpha particles were reflected or returned
back.

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Conclusions of Rutherford’s α-ray scatteringexperiment
1. There should be large empty or vacant space inside the atom
because, most of the alpha particles were passed straight through
the goldfoil without suffering any deviation.
2. Few alpha particles were deviated with small angles, it
means that alpha particles must approach a heavy positively
charged body inside the atom.
3. Since, only few alpha particles were deflected with angle
greater than 900 or rebounded, it means there is a direct collision
of α-particles with heavy positively charged mass concentrated at
the centre of atom (nucleus).
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Postulates of Rutherford’s Nuclear (atomic) Model
1. An atom consist of positively charged nucleus of the radius
10-13 cm where the entire mass of an atom is concentrated.
2. The size of nucleus (radius 10-13 cm) is very small compared to
the size of an atom (radius 10-8 cm) .
3. The whole atom is electrically neutral, since the total no. of
electrons and protons are equal.
4. Electrons revolve around the nucleus showing planetary
motion

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Drawbacks of Rutherford’s atomic model
1. This model could not explain the stabilityof atom.
According to the electromagnetic theory of
Maxwell, when the electron is revolving
around the nucleus under the influence of
attractive forces, it loses the energy in the
form of electromagnetic radiations. Due to the
loss of energy the speed of electron would
slow down and its orbit becomes smaller and
smaller and finally the electrons would fall
into the nucleus. But electrons actually does
not fall into the nucleus i.e. atoms are found to
be stable. Therefore, Rutherford’s model does
not explain about stability of atom.
Fig: Spiral motion of an electron
2. This model does not explain atomic spectra of hydrogen.
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Some important questions for exam (2-marks)
1. An atom is electrically neutral. Justify thisstatement.
2. What chemical species is called Alpha particle?
3. Which observations of Rutherford’s experiment proves that
most of the space inside atom is vacant?
4. What experimental evidence led Rutherford to conclude that the
nucleus of atom is positively charged?
5. What observation of Rutherford led to conclude that the nucleus
of atom is very small butheavy mass?
6. What are the limitations of Rutherford’s atomic model?

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 Some important questions for exam (5/10-marks) @BT
1. What are the observations of Rutherford’s α-ray scattering experiment?
Write the conclusion drawn from it about the structure of atom.
2. What experimental evidence led Rutherford to conclude that
a. the nucleus of atom contains most of the atomic mass?
b. the nucleus of atom is positively charged?
c. the nucleus of atom consists of mostly empty space?
3. What are the observations and conclusions obtained by Rutherford
from his α-ray scattering experiment. Write itslimitations.
4. Write short noteson
a. Rutherford’s nuclear model ofatom.
or
Postulates ofRutherford’s atomic model.
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Bohr’s atomic model @BT

Neil Bohr in 1913 proposed an atomic model

based on Planck’s quantum theory to overcome the
limitations of Rutherford’s atomic model. The basic
postulates of this model are as follows:

Neil Bohr
1. Stationary state:
In an atom, the electron revolves continuously around
the nucleus in a fixed circular path. Such circular path
are called shell or orbit or stationary state which are
represented by the letters K, L, M, N… or 1, 2, 3, 4…Each
orbit can accommodate 2n² number of electrons.
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Each orbit is associated with definite amount of energy. So
an electron neither gain nor lose energy so long as they stay
in these orbit. Hence, these orbit are called stationary state
or energy levels. The energy of various energy levels is given
in the order E1<E2<E3<E4

Fig: stationary state of atom

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2. Stability of atom: @BT

The electrostatic force of attraction between electron and

nucleus (i.e. centripetal force) is balanced by the centrifugal force
acting on the revolving electrons. Hence, an atom become stable.
Mathematically,
e²
Kz = mv²
r² r
Where, m =mass of electron (9.1x10⁻³¹kg)
v =velocity of electron
r = radius of orbit or shell
e =charge of electron (1.6x10⁻¹⁹C)
K=electrostatic constant (1/4πԑ₀)
z=atomic number 23
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3. Quantization of angularmomentum:
Only those orbits are permitted for which the
angular momentum of the revolving electron is an
integral multiple of h/2π. These permitted orbits
are called Bohr’s orbit.
i.e. mvr =n h
2π
Where, m =mass of electron v
900
v =velocity of movingelectron m
r
r =radius of electron orbit
n =number of shell or orbit
h = Planck’s constant (6.626x10-34 JS or 6.626x10-27 erg. S)
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Momentum ( p )= the quantity of motion of a moving body,
Momentum ( p )= m. v measured as a product of its mass and velocity

Angular Momentum ( L )= r x p
= r . ( m. v)
=m.(rxv) v
900
ө = m . r . v. Sin ө m
v r
r m
= m . r . v. Sin 900
=m. r.v i.e. Sin 900 = 1
= m.v.r

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4. Origin of atomic spectra:
The energy is emitted or absorbed only when an electron is jump from
one orbit to another. An electron absorb energy when it jump from
lower energy level to higher energy level (excited state). Since, the
lifetimeoftheelectronin theexcitedstateisshort,itimmediatelyjumps
back to the lower energy level by emitting energy in the form of
electromagnetic radiation. The magnitude of energy emitted or
absorbed is equal to the difference in energy of two different energy
levels. Where, E₁=Lowerenergylevel
i.e. ∆E =E₂-E₁ E2 =Higherenergylevel
∆E= hν h=Planck’s constant
ν =Frequencyofradiation
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 Hydrogen Spectra @BT

The origin of hydrogen spectra can be explained on the basis of Bohr’s

atomic theory.

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 When hydrogen gas is taken in a discharge tube and high electric @BT
voltage is applied under low pressure then the large number of hydrogen
molecule are dissociated into large number of hydrogen atom. The
ground state of electrons of different H-atoms absorb certain amount of
energy and jumps to higher energy level. The electrons in higher energy level are
unstable, hence the electron returned back to ground state emitting electromagnetic
radiation of particular wavelength with particular spectral line. The series
of such spectral line are called spectral series. Such different type of
spectral series of hydrogen are called ashydrogen spectra.
The amount of energy emitted is given by
i.e. ∆E =E₂-E₁ Where, E₁=Lowerenergylevel

∆E= hν E2 =Higherenergylevel
h=Planck’s constant
ν =Frequencyofradiation 29
 The wavelength of spectral line for spectral series can be calculated @BT
as:
1 1 - 1
=R
λ n1² n2²
Where, λ = Wavelength of radiation
R= Rydberg’s constant (109677 cm-1 )
n₁ = Lower energy level
n₂ = Higher energy level

There are five types of spectral series observed for hydrogen on the
basis of wavelength of energy released. When electron jump from
higher energy level ( n₂=2,3,4,…,∞ ) to lower energy level (n₁ =1 ), then
the energy is release in the form of electromagnetic radiation.

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The five spectral series in the atomic spectrum of hydrogen are shown as: @BT
n∞ E∞
n7 E7
n6 E6
n5 E5
Pfund series
Far IR region
n4 E4
Brackett series

n3 E3 IR region
Paschen series

n2 E2 Visible region
Balmer series

n1 E1 UV region 31
Lyman series Fig:Originoflinespectraofhydrogen
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1. Lyman series:
Itisobtainedwhenelectronsjumpbackto1storbitfromdifferenthigherenergylevel(i.e.
n2= 2,3,4,5…..). It lies in ultraviolet (UV) region. The wavelength of Lyman series can be
calculatedby
1 1 - 1
=R
λ n1² n2²
1 1 - 1
=R
λ 1² n2²

n₁ = Lower energy level=1

n₂ = Higher energy level=2,3,4……

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2. Balmer series:
It is obtained when electrons jump back to 2nd orbit from different higher energy level (
i.e. n2=3,4,5…..).Itliesinvisibleregion.ThewavelengthofBalmerseriescanbecalculated
by
1 1 - 1
=R
λ n1² n2²
1 1 - 1
=R
λ 2² n2²

n₁ = Lower energy level=2

n₂ = Higher energy level=3,4,5……

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3. Paschen series:
Itisobtainedwhenelectronsjumpbackto3rdorbitfromdifferenthigherenergylevel(i.e.
n2= 4,5,6…..). It lies in Infrared (IR) region. The wavelength of Paschen series can be
calculatedby
1 1 - 1
=R
λ n1² n2²
1 1 - 1
=R
λ 3² n2²

n₁ = Lower energy level=3

n₂ = Higher energy level=4,5,6……

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4. Brackett series:
Itisobtainedwhenelectronsjumpbackto4th orbitfromdifferenthigherenergylevel(i.e.
n2= 5,6,7…..). It lies in far Infrared (IR) region. The wavelength of Brackett series can be
calculatedby
1 1 - 1
=R
λ n1² n2²
1 1 - 1
=R
λ 4² n2²
n₁ = Lower energy level=4
n₂ = Higher energy level=5,6,7……

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4. Pfund series:
Itisobtainedwhenelectronsjumpbackto5th orbitfromdifferenthigherenergylevel(i.e.
n2= 6,7,8…..). It lies in far Infrared (IR) region.The wavelength of Pfund series can be
calculatedby
1 1 - 1
=R
λ n1² n2²
1 1 - 1
=R
λ 5² n2²
n₁ = Lower energy level=5
n₂ = Higher energy level=6,7,8……

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Table: Series of Spectral line of Hydrogen
Spectral Spectral Value of n₁ Value of n₂
series region
Lyman series U.V. 1 2,3,4…

Balmer series Visible 2 3,4,5…

Paschen series I.R. 3 4,5,6…

Brackett series Far I.R. 4 5,6,7…

Pfund series Far I.R. 5 6,7,8…

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Successes of Bohr’s Atomic Model
1. It explain about the emission of hydrogen spectrum.
2. It explains about the stability of the atom.
3. It helps to calculate the energy of electron in the nth
shell. -2 π2me4 -2 π2me4 -13.6 ev/atom [ For H-atom ]
En = =
n2h2 n2h2 n2
E1 = -13.6 ev/atom z2
= -13.6 x 2 ev/atom for other atom
E2 = -3.4 ev/atom n
E3 = -1.51 ev/atom
E4 = -0.85 ev/atom 38
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4. It helps to calculate the radii of permissible orbit in

which electron revolve.
n2h2
rn = = 0.53 n2 A0 for H-atom
4 π2me2
= 0.53 n A for other atom
2 0
z
Where,
m =mass of electron
e =charge of electron (-1.6x10⁻¹⁹C)
h =Planck’s constant (6.626x10-34 JS or 6.626x10-27 erg. S)
n =number of shell or orbit [ Principle quantum number n=1,2,3,…]

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Limitations of Bohr’s Atomic Model
1. This model is only applicable for single electron system like H,
He⁺, Li++, Be+++ etc.
2. It does not explain about the splitting spectral lines during high
resolution i.e. about “fine structures”.
3. This model doesn’t explain about the splitting of spectral lines
in the magnetic field (Zeeman effect) and in the electric
field (Stark effect).
4. This model assumes flat or planner structure of atom but the
exact structure of atom is 3-D.
5. It does not explain the de-Broglie concept of dual character of
electron and Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle.
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Some important questions for exam (2-marks)
1. What is atomic spectra? How is it originated?
2. What do you mean by quantization of angular momentum?
3. Which spectral series appears on visual part of
electromagnetic spectrum? How is it originated?
4. How are Balmer and Paschen series originated in hydrogen spectra?
5. What is Bohr-Bury rule?
6. Why is the electron does not jump into nucleus?
7. Write the limitations of Bohr’s atomic model.
8. What are stationary state? Symbolizethem.

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Some important questions for exam (5/10-marks) @BT

1. Give the essential postulates of Bohr’s atomic model. Write its

limitations.
2. How did Bohr’s atomic model explain the origin of hydrogen spectra?
Sketch and name various spectral series observed on hydrogenspectra.
3. What are the postulates of Bohr’s atomic model? How did it overcome
the limitations of Rutherford’s nuclear model of atom.
4. Write short noteson:
(a) Bohr’s atomic model of atom.
(b) Postulates of Bohr’s atomicmodel.
(d) Hydrogen spectra.

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Elementary idea of quantum mechanical model
i. Dual nature of electron [ de-Broglie equation ]
ii. Heisenberg uncertainty principle

i. Dual nature of electron [ de-Broglie equation ]

Louis de-Broglie, a French physicist, suggested that the
electrons in motion show dual nature i.e. some time
particles and some time wave nature (matter wave).
On the basis of dual nature of electron, de-Broglie derived
a wave equation from the concept of Einstein’s mass-energy
relationship and Planck’s photon-energy relationship, which is
commonly called as de-Broglie wave equation.
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From Einstein’s mass-energy relationship, the energy of matter can be
calculated as;
E=mc²……..(i) Where, m = mass of matter
c = Velocity of light
From Planck’s photon-energy relationship, the energy of photon can
be calculated as;
E=hʋ………(ii) Where, h = Planck’s constant
ʋ = frequency of radiation

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From Equation (i) and (ii)
mc² = hʋ
hc c
mc² = Since, ʋ=
λ λ
h
mc =
λ
h
λ= (iii)
mc
For a material particle having velocity ‘v’ then, equation (iii) will be,
h
λ=
mv
h
λ= (iv) Where, P=mv
P
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1
Pα (v) λ = wavelength of matter wave or de-
λ Broglie wavelength

h
λ= is known as de-Broglie equation.
mv
Limitation
▪ de-Broglie equation is true for only microscopic particle like electron,
proton and neutron.

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2.Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle @BT

If electron is considered as particle then it’s position and

momentum can be calculated simultaneously from the concept of
Bohr’s fixed orbit. On the other hand if the electron is considered as
wave then it is extending through out the space and it’s position and
momentum can not be measured accurately at a time.
From this concept a German scientist Werner Heisenberg in 1927
put forward a principle to calculate the position and momentum of a
particle within certain limits.

This principle state that “ It is impossible to measure

simultaneously the exact position and momentum or velocity of
microscopic moving particle like electron at a same time” .

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If ∆x is the uncertainty in the measurement of position and ∆p is
the uncertainty in the measurement of momentum then these two
uncertainties are related as;
∆x.∆p ≥ h/4π…..(i)
Where h is Planck’sconstant
If the position of microscopic particle is measured accurately then, ∆x =
0.
Now, ∆p = h/4π.∆x
∆p = h/4π.0
∆p = ∞
(undetermined)
Hence, uncertainty in the measurement of momentum will be infinite
andvice-versa.
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If ∆p = ∆v.m, then eq.(i) become,
∆x.∆v.m ≥ h/4π
∆x.∆v ≥ h/4π.m……(ii)
[If ∆x =0 then ∆v=∞]

Hence, it is impossible to measure the exact position and

momentum or velocity of electron in an atom at the same time.

[Bohr calculated the position and momentum or velocity of

electron at a same time from it’s fixed orbit concept. But it is not so in
case of microscopic particle like electron as it is extended throughout the
3-D space. Hence, Bohr’s fixed orbit concept appears to be defective in
light of Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle.]

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Q. Which principle goes against the concept of Bohr’s fixed orbit?
Ans: Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle goes against the concept of
Bohr’s fixed orbit. According to Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle
“ It is impossible to measure simultaneously the exact position and
momentum or velocity of microscopic moving particle like electron at
a same time” . But according to Bohr’s theory, electron is moving with a
fixed velocity around the nucleus in a fixed orbit of definite radius.
Thus, Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle goes against the concept
of Bohr’s fixed orbit

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Probability concept about the position of electron @BT

According to Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle, “ It is impossible

to measure simultaneously the exact position and momentum or
velocity of microscopic moving particle like electron at a same time” .
This statement suggested that we can only predict the probability of
finding an electron with a probable velocity in a particular region
around the nucleus (i.e. atomic orbital )
The region or space around the nucleus where the probability of
finding the electron is maximum, are called atomic orbital.

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Difference between orbit and orbital
Orbit
1. It is well defined circular path around the
nucleus in which the electrons revolve,
2. Orbits are denoted by K, L, M, N or 1,2,3,4… etc
3. Orbits are circular in shape.
4. They are non-directional in nature.
5. It represent the planar motion of an electron.
6. The maximum number of electrons in any orbit
is given by 2n2 where ‘n’ is the number of orbit.
7. The orbits cannot explain the geometry of
molecule.
8. An orbit has got fixed radius.
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Orbital
1. The region or space around the nucleus where
the probability of finding the electron is maximum,
are called atomic orbital.
2. Orbitals are denoted with symbol s, p, d, f etc
3. They have different shapes such as s-orbital are
spherical, p-orbital are dumb-bell shape.
4. All orbitals except s-orbital have directional
characteristics.
5. It represents the three dimensional motion of an
electron around the nucleus.
6. The maximum number of electron in any orbital
is two with opposite spin.
7. The orbitals can explain the geometry of the
molecule.
8. The radius of an orbital is not fixed since it is a
broad region around nucleus. 52
 Atomic orbital @BT
The distribution of electronic cloud in 3-d space in any region
around the nucleus , where the probability of finding an electron is
maximum is called atomic orbital. Therefore atomic orbital are sub-
division of atomic orbit having different size, shape and orientation.
There are four types of atomic orbital i.e, s, p, d and f.
Orbit Value of n Name of orbital No. of orbital
K 1 1s 1
L 2 2s,2p 2
M 3 3s,3p,3d 3
N 4 4s,4p,4d,4f 4
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Atomic orbital possess different size, orientation and electron

holding capacity. One orientation can hold maximum two electrons.

Name of No. of Total no. Shape of orbital

orbital orientation of
(2l+1) electrons
s 1 2 Spherical
p 3 6 Dumb-bell
d 5 10 Double dumb-bell
f 7 14 Complex

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 Shape of s, p, f, and d orbital @BT

1. Shape of s-orbital
▪ The symbol s stand for sharp
▪ It is spherical in shape
▪ It is non-directional in nature
▪ It possess only one orientation.
▪ The maximum number of electrons holding capacity of s-orbital is 2.
▪ One electron moves clockwise and next anticlockwise. 1s
Z
Y

Spherical shape
X

Fig: s-orbital
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2. Shape of p-orbital @BT

▪ The symbol p stand for principle.

▪ It is pear shaped or dumb-bell shaped.
▪ It is directional in nature.
▪ It possess three orientation i.e. Px, Py and Pz along with x, y, and z-axes respectively.
▪ The maximum number of electrons holding capacity of p-orbital is 6 i.e. each orientation
can hold 2 electrons with opposite movement. Px Py Pz

Dumbbell shape

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3. Shape of d-orbital @BT
dxy dxz dyz dz2 dx -y 2 2

▪ The symbol ‘d’stand for diffused.

▪ It is double dumb-bell shaped.
▪ It is directional in nature.
▪ It possess five orientation i.e. dx2-y2, dz2 , dyz, dxz and dxy.
▪ The maximum number of electrons holding capacity of d-orbital is 10 i.e. each orientation
can hold 2 electrons with opposite movement.

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 4 Shape of f-orbital dz3 dyz2 fyz2 fx(x2-3y2) fz(x2-3y2),
@BT

▪ The symbol ‘f’stand for fundamental.

▪ Its shape is complex.
▪ It is directional in nature. fy(y2-3x2) dxyz.
▪ It possess seven orientation i.e. fz3, fxz2, fyz2, fx(x2-3y2), fy(y2-3x2), fz(x2-3y2), dxyz.
▪ The maximum number of electrons holding capacity of f-orbital is 14 i.e. each orientation
can hold 2 electrons with opposite movement.

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