Nuclei

Atomic mass unit (a.m.u): It is defined as 1/12th of the mass of carbon-12 atom.

1 a.m.u = 1.66x 10-27 Kg. Atomic mass can be correctly measured with a mass spectrometer.

Energy equivalent to 1 a.m.u: According to Einstein E = mc2,

Then energy E = 1.66 x 10-27 x (3 x 108)2 = 1.49 x 10-10 J.

Electron volt is the energy of an electron when it is subjected to a potential difference of 1V.

Since 1eV = 1.6 x 10-19 J, therefore E = 931.25 x 106 eV = 931 MeV.

Size of nucleus: Size of nucleus can be measured by using fast electrons instead of α-particle for the
scattering experiment. The nuclear size was found to vary linearly with mass number (A).

R α A 1/3 or R = R0 A1/3, R0 is the empirical constant for all nuclei and its value is calculated
as 1.2 x 10 m. Nuclear density is a constant (2.38 x 10 17 Kgm-3, i.e. independent of mass number for all
-15

nuclei.

Mass defect (Δm): It is defined as the difference between the mass of the constituent nucleons of the
nucleus in the Free State and the mass of the nucleus.

Consider a nucleus of mass M having Z protons and (A-Z) neutrons. Let mn be the mass of each neutron
and mp be the mass of each proton.

Mass defect, Δm = {mp Z + mn (A-Z)} – M

Nuclear binding energy: the total energy required to disintegrate the nucleus into its constituent particles
(nucleons) is called nuclear binding energy.

According to Einstein E = mc 2

Thus energy equivalent to mass defect is the binding energy of the nucleus.

Binding energy, Eb = Δm x c2.

Eb = [{mp Z + mn (A-Z)} – M] c2. If the mass defect is measured in Kg, then binding energy is
expressed in Joule. When mass defect is expressed in a.m.u, then binding energy is written as
Eb = Δm x 931 MeV.

Binding energy per nucleon: It is the average energy required to release a nucleon from the nucleus.

Ebn = Eb/A.

Binding energy per nucleon determines the stability of a nucleus. If the binding energy nucleon of a nucleus
is less, the nucleus is less stable whereas the nucleus is more stable if its binding energy per nucleon is
higher. The variation of binding energy per nucleon with the mass number (A) is as shown in the fig. From
the graph it is clear that:
(1) Average binding energy per nucleon for mass number < 3 is very small.

(2) Some nuclei with mass number 3 < A < 20 have large binding energy than their neighboring nuclei, so
these nuclei are more stable than their neighbors.

(3) For 30 < A < 62, binding energy per nucleon increases gradually till it attains a maximum value 8.8 MeV
per nucleon corresponding to 28Ni62 nucleus. Thus they are stable elements.

(4) For nuclei having A > 62 binding energy per nucleon gradually decreases. For uranium (A=238) the
value of binding energy per nucleon drops to 7.5 MeV.

Conclusions:

(1) The intermediate nuclei have large value of binding energy per nucleon, so they are more stable.

(2) The binding energy per nucleon has low value for both the light and heavy nuclei so they are unstable
nuclei.

(3) When a heavy nucleus splits into lighter nuclei, then binding energy per nucleon of lighter nuclei is more
than that of the original heavy nucleus. Thus, energy is released in this process. This process is called
nuclear fission.

(4) When two very light nuclei A ≤ 10 combines to form a relatively heavy nucleus, then binding energy per
nucleon of combined becomes more than lighter nuclei. Thus energy is released in this process. This
process is called nuclear fusion.
Nuclear forces: The nuclear force was assumed to be a strong attractive force of magnitude greater than
the Coulomb’s repulsive force. Yukawa predicted that the nuclear forces arise due to the exchange of
particle known as π-mesons between the nucleons.

Properties of nuclear force:

(1) Nuclear force is strong fundamental force in nature- Magnitude of the force is 100 times the
Coulomb’s electrostatic repulsive force and 10 36 times the gravitational force.

(2) Nuclear force is mainly an attractive force (has small component of repulsive force only) - the
variation of potential energy with distance (r) between the nucleons is as shown in fig 13.2. Fig shows P.E is
least at distance r0 (≈0.8 fm). When the distance between two nucleus is > r0, the nuclear force is attractive.
As the between them decreases and is < r0 this force becomes repulsive and becomes minimum (≈0.8 fm)
and increases rapidly which avoids the collapsing of the nucleus.

(3) Nuclear force is charge independent: Nuclear force between proton-proton, proton-neutron and
neutron-neutron is same, so these forces are charge independent.

(4) Nuclear force short range: the nuclear fore between two nucleons exist only when the distance
between nucleons is comparable to the size of nucleus (10 -15m).

(5) Nuclear force is saturated force: Nuclear force becomes quickly zero when distance between two
nucleuses is just about 3 fm. Thus a nucleon can attract only the nearest neighbors and has no influence on
other nucleons.

(6) Nuclear force is an exchange force: - It is due to exchange of π- mesons

(7) Nuclear force is non-central force: It does not act along the line joining centers of the nucleons.

(8) Nuclear force is spin dependent: nuclear force between nucleons having parallel spins is greater than
the force between nucleons having anti-parallel spins.

Nuclear energy: The energy obtained from the conversion of nuclear mass. There are two processes
nuclear fission and nuclear fusion.

Nuclear fission: It is the process of splitting a heavy nucleus into two lighter nuclei along with conversion of
mass defect into energy. When uranium nucleus is bombarded with a thermal neutron, it is found that the
products are Ba and Kr along with three neutrons along with large amount of energy.

92U
235
+ 0n1  56Ba141 + 36 Kr 92 + 3 0n1 + Q (Energy)

Nuclear Fusion: A process in which two very light nuclei combine to form a nucleus with a larger mass
number along with simultaneous release of large amount of energy.

1H
2
+ 1H2  2He4 + 0n1 + Q (Energy)

Nuclear fusion cannot take place so easily. Nuclear fusion can be achieved at a very high temperature and
hence it is known as thermo nuclear reaction. Nuclear fusion occurs in the sun and other stars.