NUCLEAR

ENERGY

Einstein's theory of special
relativity:
Energy and mass
E=MC^2 (C=3*10^8ms)
Mass of an object increase
or decreases when it gains
or loses energy.
APPLIES TO ALL ENERGY
CHANGES OF ANY
OBJECT
A DECAY: the nucleus recoils when the a
particle is emitted-so the energy released is
shared between the a particle and nucleus.
– use conservation of momentum to show
energy released is shared.
B DECAY: the energy released is shared
in variable proportions between the B
PARTICLE, NUCLUES,
NEUTRINO/ANTINEUTRINO. If the b
particle has maximum kinetic energy the
neutrino has negligible kinetic energy. The b
particle will always have less kinetic energy
than the energy released because of the
recoil of the nucleus.
ELECTRON CAPTURE: nucleus
emits a neutrino which carries away all
energy released. Also emits a X-ray photon-
when de-excitation.
Recap from AS:
1.When a particle and its
corresponding antiparticle meet,
they annihilate each other and 2
gamma photons are produced,
each of energy mc^2 (m is the
mass of particle/antiparticle.
Energy changes in reactions: 2.A single photon of energy in
Reactions on a sub-nuclear excess of 2mc^2 can produce a
particle and antiparticle, each of
level involve significant
mass m( pair production)
changes of mass.
Energy released Q=delta mc^2
When energy is released the
mass after the change is
always less than the total mass
before the change some of the
mass is changed into energy)
1u=1.661*10^-27kg.
E=1.661*10^-27kg * C(3*10^-8ms)
=1.49*10^-10J
=931.3MeV

STRONG NUCLEAR FORCE-attractive force
between any 2 nucleons in the nucleus.
Strength?: estimate the force of repulsion
between 2 protons at distances of 1fm
apart(=10^-15). Between 2 protons= 200 N, so
strong nuclear must be at least 200 N.
NOTES:
When calculating Q in beta decay assume
neutrino has negligible mass.
If mass of each atom is given instead of mass
of its nucleus calculate mass of each nucleus
by subtracting mass of the electrons from
mass of each atom.

Range?: no more than 3-4*10^-15m. The

diameter of nucleus can be found by electron
scattering-shows even spacing so strong nuclear
must act between nearest neighbouring
nucleons.
Energy to remove?: in MeV; force is about 200
N, over about 2-3*10^-15 m. SO work
done=7810^-13J.
= 200N * 3.5*106-15M.
=4 MeV.
Repulsion?: become repulsive at 0.5fm or less. If
not the nucleons would pull closer and closer
and the nucleus wouldn’t be the same size.
 Binding energy of a nucleus: work that must be done to separate a nucleus into its constituent
neutrons and protons.
To separate a nucleus into

BINDING ENERGY
its separate nucleons
work must be done to
overcome the strong
nuclear force. The
potential energy of
each nucleons Is
When a nucleus forms energy
therefore increased
when removed from is released, as the strong
its nucleus. nuclear force does work pulling
nucleons together, ENERGY
RELEASED =BINDING
ENERGY.
Because energy is released
when nucleus forms, the
nucleuses mass is less than
the mass of its separated
nucleons.
MASS DEFECT: difference between mass of the separated nucleons with the mass of
the nucleus.
MASS DEFECT for =Zmp+(A-Z)mn-Mnuc.
mp-mass of proton, mn-mass of nuetron, Z-protons,A-Z-neutrons, Mnuc-mass of
nucleus.

The mass defect is due to energy released when the nuclues is formed from separate
neutrons and protons.
Binding energy=mc^2
 A particle tunnelling
1. If 2 protons and 2 2. Why?: A particles binding 3. The potential energy of
neutrons bind energy is very large the particle varies with the
together in a big (7MeV per nucleon) distance it is to the outside
enough nucleus, So the particle gains enough the nucleus from inside.
then they emitted kinetic energy to give it
as a A particle enough probability of
quantum tunnelling
4. The gain of kinetic energy when
the A particle forms is not enough
to over come the coulomb barrier
but due to the WAVE NATURE of
A particle it has the probability of
tunnelling through the barrier.

NOTES:
The coulomb barrier is due to the electrostatic
force on the A particle.
The ‘well’ is due to the strong nuclear force.
 Nuclear stability
Binding energy PER NUCELON:
average work done per nucleon
= MORE BINDING
to remove all nucleons from a
ENERGY
nucleus=MEASURE OF
REQUIRED=
STABILITY
MORE STABLE.

FUSION?: process of making

small nuclei fuse together to form
a larger nucleus.
Product has more energy than
smaller nuclei. –so binding energy
of each nucleon INCREASES
FISSION?: process in which a
large unstable nucleus splits into 2
fragments which are more stable-
Binding energy per nucleon
INCREASES.
 Nuclear fusion
WHEN 2 NUCLEI COMBINE TO FORM A BIGGER NUCLES.
When 2 lighter nuclei combine they become
High speed?: to more tightly bound, therefore the binding
overcome the energy per nucleon increase
electrostatic force of Energy is released=to the biding energy.
repulsion, so they come
close enough to be
acted on by the strong
nuclear force.

Energy released can be

calculated using E=MC^2-
BY Q=DELTAMC^2
DELTA M AS THE
DIFFRENCE BETWEEN
THE TOTAL MASS BEFORE
AND AFTER EVENT
 SOLAR ENERGY
Solar energy is produced as a result of fusion in the sun
Temperature in the centre of the sun is about 10^5K or more.
Due to temperature atoms are stripped of electrons-PLASMA
Nuclei of plasma move at high speed due to temperature.
2 nuclei collide and fuse because they overcome the electrostatic force
because of CHARGE + VERY LITTLE DISTANCE APART SO
INTERACT BY SRONG NUCLEAR.

PROTONS= IN THE SUNS CORE FUSE

TOGETHER IN STAGES (SHOWN ON THE LAST
SLIDE) =FORM HELIUM
FOR EACH HELIUM FORMED 25MeV.
 INDUCED FISSION
WHEN AN UNSTABLE NUCLEUS SPLITS INTO TWO APPROXIMATLY EQUAL
FRACTIONS
DISCOVERED?: U-235 was
bombarded with neutrons – .
INDUCED FISSION Releases
By Hahn and Strassman energy of 2/3
Knew that bombarding neutrons
radioactive elements with
neutrons created heavier
isotopes- uranium is the
heaviest.
Needed to chemically investigate
products to see if any new FISIONABLE?
elements had been formed U-235
heavier than U-235. PU-239
FOUND that lighter elements had
been formed
U-235 must have split as a result
of the bombardment of neutrons
 FISSION NEUTRONS
NEUTRONS FORMED IN FISSION EACH
ARE CAPABLE OF CAUSING FURTHER
FISSIONS REACTIONS IF THEY COLLIDE
WITH ANOTHER U-235 NUCLEUS
REACTIONS TAKES NO MORE THAN A
FRACTION OF A SECOND= HUGE AMOUNT
OF ENERGY IN LITTLE TIME.
CHAIN REACTION(possible if
there is a dominoes effect)
=
If on average a fission event
produces 2 neutrons, then after ‘n’
generations(amounts) of fission
events
the number of neutrons =2^n
 ENERGY RELEASED
In fission the fragments repel each other with enough force to
overcome the strong nuclear force holding them together.
The fragment nuclei and neutrons gain KINETIC ENERGY.
2 FRAGMENT NUCLEI= smaller so more tightly bound than U-235(more binding
energy so are more stable)
=binding energy PER NUCLEON increases by about 7.5-8.5 MeV
=as there are about 240 nucleons in the original nucleus the energy release is
about
200MeV( 240*about 1 MeV)
Energy released=
change of binding
energy
Thermal nuclear reactor
 CONTROL RODS?: absorb neutrons.
Depth of rods are automatically adjusted so that exactly ONE fission NEUTRON per
fission event goes onto to produce further fission.
KEEPS RATE OF RELEASE OF FISSION ENERGY CONSTANT
Further pushed in the control rods are the more neutrons they absorb= number of
fissions and rate of fission energy released is reduced.
Fuel rods contain enriched uranium- NON-
FISSIONABLE U-238 -2/3%
FISSIONABLE U-235.

Moderator: fission neutrons have to be slowed down significantly to further fission,

otherwise they would be TRAVELLING TOO FAST TO CAUSE FURTHER FISSION,
Fuel rods are surrounded by a moderator so neutrons are slowed down by repeated
collisions with moderator atoms.
Critical mass: for a chain reaction to occur mass must be greater than a minimum
amount. Some fission neutrons escape from the fissionable material and some is
absorbed by other nuclei without causing fission.
Critical mass needed because too many will escape and surface area: volume ratio will
be too high.

The reactor is called a thermal reactor because the neutrons are slowed down to kinetic
energies comparable with the kinetic energies of the moderator molecule's
 Safety!!!
1. Reactor core is in a thick steel vessel- designed to withstand HIGH PRESSURE
AND TEMPERATURE IN CORE.
2. STEEL VESSEL ABSORDS b AND SOME GAMMA + NEUTRONS
3. The core is also in a building with metre thick concrete walls. concrete walls
absorb any B, GAMMA OR NETURONS not absorbed by the steel vessel.
4. EVERY core has an emergency shut down system which automatically places the
control rods fully into the core to stop fission completely.
5. sealed fuel rods are inserted and removed by remote control. –contain Pu-249
which is a very active A emitter and when inhaled can cause lung cancer,
Fuel rods are far more reactive
after fission:
BEFORE fuel cans contain U-
235+U-238 which emit A radiation
which are absorbed by fuel cans.
AFTER emit B and GAMMA
because of all the neutron rich
products
 Radioactive waste
Three levels
LLW: generated from hospitals and industry, as well as the nuclear fuel cycle.
Low-level wastes include paper, rags, tools, clothing, filters, and other materials
which contain small amounts of mostly short-lived radioactivity

ILW: contains higher amounts of radioactivity and in some cases requires

shielding. Intermediate-level wastes includes resins, chemical and metal reactor 
nuclear fuel cladding, as well as contaminated materials from 
reactor decommissioning

HLW: Is produced by nuclear reactors. It contains fission products and 

transuranic elements generated in the reactor core. It is highly radioactive and
often hot. HLW accounts for over 95 percent of the total radioactivity produced
in the process of nuclear electricity generation