VIJETA SERIES

VIJETA SERIES

Nuclei
IN 1 SHOT

Kshitiz Kanik Sir

 TABLE OF CONTENT

1 1Composition of Nucleus
21Mass Defect
31Numericals(Pyqs, NCERT)
4 Fission & Fusion Reaction
Composition of a Nucleus
The discovery of neutrons by Chadwick, led Heisenberg to propose proton-neutron
hypothesis in 1932.
Proton & neutrons are main building blocks of the nuclei.
The proton gives +ve charge while protons & neutrons together give it mass.

Proton: fundamental particle, positive charge 1.6 × 10–19 C

Mass 1.6726 × 10–27 kg (1836 times of rest mass of electron)

Neutron: neutral Mass 1.6749 × 10–27 kg (slightly greater than proton)

Composition of a Nucleus
The following terms are used to describe the composition of atomici nucleus:

Nucleons: Protons & Neutrons which are present in the nuclei of atoms are collectively
known as nucleons.

Atomic number (Z): The number of protons in the nucleus is called the atomic number of
the elements. It is denoted by Z.

Mass number (A): The total number of protons and neutrons present in a nucleus is called
the mass number of the elements. It is denoted by A.
Composition of a Nucleus
Isotopes, Isobars, Isotones & Isomers
Isotopes, Isobars, Isotones & Isomers
Atomic Masses
Atomic Masses
Nuclear Size
Nuclear Size
Q

SOLUTION
Q

SOLUTION
Nuclear Density
Nuclear Density

Note: Nuclear density is same for all Nuclei

Q
Show that the density of nucleus over a wide range of nuclei is constant
and independent of mass number.

SOLUTION
Q

SOLUTION
Discovery of Neutrons
Properties of Neutrons
 Neutron is an elementary particle present in the nuclei of all elements except
hydrogen.

 Neutron has no charge and its mass is slightly more than that of proton.

 Being neutral, they do not interact with electrons. So neutrons have low ionizing
powers.

 Being neutral, neutrons are not repelled or attracted by the nucleus and the
electrons of an atom.

 They induce radioactivity in many elements.

Nuclear Force
Nuclear Force
The average separation between two nucleons is about 10–15 m. The strong attractive
interaction acting between the nucleons is called nuclear force or strong interaction.

It is a strong attractive force that insides the protons and neutrons together inside a tiny
nucleus.

PROPERTIES
 Strongest interaction
 Short range focus
 Variation with distance
 Charge independent character
 Saturation effect
 Spin dependent character
 Exchange forces
 Non-central forces
Nuclear Force
• Strongest interaction
Fg: Fe: Fn = 1: 1036: 1038
• Short range focus
'It operates only upto very short
distance of about 2-3 fm from a
nucleon.
• Variation with distance
The P.E. is minimum at a distance
ro  0.8 f m
• Charge independent character
nuclear force does not depend on the
charge of the particles.
• Saturation effect
Nuclear forces show saturation effect, i.e.,
a nucleon interacts only with its
neighbouring nucleon.
• Spin dependent character
The nuclear force between two nucleons
having parallel spins is stronger than that
between two nucleons having antiparallel
spins
Nuclear Force
Properties
• Exchange forces
The nuclear force between two nucleons arises from the constant exchange of
particles, called mesons, between them.
• Non-central forces
The nuclear force between two nucleons does not act along the line joining their
centres.
Mass Defect & Packing Fraction
Q

SOLUTION
Q

SOLUTION
Q

SOLUTION
Mass Defect & Packing Fraction
Nuclear Fission
The phenomenon in which a heavy nucleus (A > 230) when excited splits out into two
smaller nuclei of nearly comparable masses is called nuclear fission.
235
92 U 10 n  56
141 92
Ba 36 Kr  310 n  Q
Nuclear Fission as a Source of Energy
An enormous amount of energy is released in a nuclear fission, as can be seen from the
235
following example: 92 U 10 n  56
141 92
Ba 36 Kr  310 n  Q

Initial Masses Final Masses

236.0526 amu 235.8373 amu

Q

SOLUTION
Nuclear Chain Reaction
The number of fissions taking place at each successive stage goes on increasing at a
rapid rate. Thus a chain reaction is set up, as shown in Fig.
Nuclear Chain Reaction
Uncontrolled chain reaction: If a chain reaction is started in a fissionable material
having mass greater than certain critical mass, then the reaction will accelerate at such a
rapid rate that the whole material will explode within a microsecond, liberating huge
amount of energy. Such a chain reaction is called uncontrolled chain reaction.
Nuclear Chain Reaction
Controlled chain reaction: The chain reaction can be controlled by absorbing a
suitable number of neutrons at each stage of the reaction, so that on an average one
neutron remains available for exciting further fission. Such a reaction is called controlled
chain reaction.
Thermal Neutrons & Moderator
Difficulties in Sustaining a Chain Reaction
There are a number of difficulties due to which a chain reaction dies out.
 Neutron leakage
 Neutron energy
 Neutron capture
Multiplication Factor
Critical Size and Critical Mass
The size of the fissionable material for which the multiplication factor k = 1, is called
critical size and its mass is called critical mass.
Nuclear Reactor
It is a device in which a nuclear chain reaction is initiated, maintained and controlled. It
works on the principle of controlled chain reaction and provides energy at a constant
rate.
Nuclear Reactor
 Main parts of a nuclear reactor:
o Nuclear fuel
o Moderator
o Control rods
o Coolant
o Shielding
 Uses of Nuclear reactor:
o In the generation of electric power.
o In the production of fast neutrons which are needed in nuclear bombardment.
o In producing fissile material like plutonium which is used in atomic bombs.
Breeder Reactors
Nuclear Fusion
Nuclear Fusion
Necessary conditions for nuclear fusion
 The high temperature is necessary for the light nuclei to have sufficient kinetic energy
so that they can overcome their mutual columbic repulsions and come closer than the
range of nuclear force. That is why a fusion reaction is also called a thermonuclear
reaction.
 High density or pressure increases the frequency of collision of light nuclei and hence
increases the rate of fusion.
These conditions exist in the interior of the sun where the temperature is about 2 × 106 K.
Such conditions cannot be easily met in a laboratory.
Fusion as source of energy in Sun & Stars
The source of energy of sun and other star is nuclear fusion. There are two possible
cycles:
(a) Proton-proton cycle:
(b) Carbon cycle:
Fusion as source of energy in Sun & Stars
 Temperature of interior of the sun is 2 × 106+ K.
 Both proton-proton & carbon-nitrogen cycles participate almost equally in the
generation of energy in the sun.
 Stars, hotter than the sun, get their energy from the carbon-nitrogen cycle, while
those cooler than the sun get their energy from the proton-proton cycle.
 Proton-proton cycle can occur at lower temp than the carbon-nitrogen cycle.
Controlled Thermonuclear Reactions
If the energy released in a thermonuclear reaction is controlled in such a manner that a
limited amount of energy is produced continuously, it can be used for many useful
purposes, particularly for generation of electrical power.
Nuclear Fission Vs. Nuclear Fusion
NUCLEAR FISSION NUCLEAR FUSION
1. Here a heavy nucleus when excited gets Here two lighter nuclei fuse together
split up into two smaller nuclei of nearly to form a heavier nucleus.
comparable masses.
2. It is a quick process. It occurs in several steps.
3. Neutrons are the link particles of Protons are the link particles of this
this process. process.
4. It produces very harmful radioactive The products of fusion are harmless.
wastes.
5. The stock is fissionable fusion is limited. The fuel required for fusion is
available in plenty.
Summary
 An atom has a nucleus. The nucleus is positively charged. The radius of the
nucleus is smaller than the radius of an atom by a factor of 104. More than 99.9%
mass of the atom is concentrated in the nucleus.
 On the atomic scale, mass is measured in atomic mass units (u). By definition,
1 atomic mass unit (1u) is 1/12th mass of one atom of 12C; 1 u = 1.660563 ×
10–27 kg.
 A nucleus contains a neutral particle called neutron. Its mass is almost the same
as that of proton
 Energies associated with nuclear processes are about a million times larger than
chemical process.
 The Q-value of a nuclear process is
Q = final kinetic energy – initial kinetic energy.
Due to conservation of mass-energy, this is also,
Q = (sum of initial masses – sum of final masses)c2
 Radioactivity is the phenomenon in which nuclei of a given species transform by
giving out α or β or γ rays; α-rays are helium nuclei; β-rays are electrons. γ-rays
are electromagnetic radiation of wavelengths shorter than X-rays;
 The fact that more neutrons are produced in fission than are consumed gives the
possibility of a chain reaction with each neutron that is produced triggering
another fission. The chain reaction is uncontrolled and rapid in a nuclear bomb
explosion. It is controlled and steady in a nuclear reactor. In a reactor, the value
of the neutron multiplication factor k is maintained at 1.
 In fusion, lighter nuclei combine to form a larger nucleus. Fusion of hydrogen
nuclei into helium nuclei is the source of energy of all stars including our sun.
 Points to Ponder
1. The density of nuclear matter is independent of the size of the nucleus. The
mass density of the atom does not follow this rule.
2. The radius of a nucleus determined by electron scattering is found to be slightly
different from that determined by alpha-particle scattering. This is because
electron scattering senses the charge distribution of the nucleus, whereas alpha
and similar particles sense the nuclear matter
3. After Einstein showed the equivalence of mass and energy, E = mc2, we cannot
any longer speak of separate laws of conservation of mass and conservation of
energy, but we have to speak of a unified law of conservation of mass and
energy. The most convincing evidence that this principle operates in nature
comes from nuclear physics. It is central to our understanding of nuclear energy
and harnessing it as a source of power. Using the principle, Q of a nuclear
process (decay or reaction) can be expressed also in terms of initial and final
masses.
4. The nature of the binding energy (per nucleon) curve shows that exothermic
nuclear reactions are possible, when two light nuclei fuse or when a heavy
nucleus undergoes fission into nuclei with intermediate mass.
5. For fusion, the light nuclei must have sufficient initial energy to overcome the
coulomb potential barrier. That is why fusion requires very high temperatures.
6. Although the binding energy (per nucleon) curve is smooth and slowly varying,
it shows peaks at nuclides like 4He, 16O etc. This is considered as evidence of
atom-like shell structure in nuclei.
7. Electrons and positron are a particle-antiparticle pair. They are identical in
mass; their charges are equal in magnitude and opposite. (It is found that when
an electron and a positron come together, they annihilate each other giving
energy in the form of gamma-ray photons.)
11. Radioactivity is an indication of the instability of nuclei. Stability requires the
ratio of neutron to proton to be around 1 : 1 for light nuclei. This ratio increases
to about 3 : 2 for heavy nuclei. (More neutrons are required to overcome the
effect of repulsion among the protons.) Nuclei which are away from the stability
ratio, i.e., nuclei which have an excess of neutrons or protons are unstable. In
fact, only about 10% of knon isotopes (of all elements), are stable. Others have
been either artificially produced in the laboratory by bombarding α, p, d, n or
other particles on targets of stable nuclear species or identified in astronomical
observations of matter in the universe.
ALL THE BEST