Atomic mass unit (u)

An atomic mass unit is defined as 1/2th the mass of a carbon (12C) atom. According to this-
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑛𝑒 12 𝐶 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚
Iu =
12
1.992647 𝑥 10−26 𝑘𝑔
= 12
= 1.660539 x 10-27 kg

Isotopes and Average Atomic mass

Isotopes
Atoms with same atomic number (exhibit the same chemical properties) but different mass number are
known as isotopes of each other. For e.g., Chlorine (34, 98CI and 36, 98 CI), Hydrogen.

Average Atomic mass

Different isotopes of the same element have different relative abundances. Therefore, the atomic mass of
such and element is given by its average atomic mass which is calculated as follows-
For e.g, consider an element A with two isotopes A1 and A2 with relative abundance of A1 being b%. The
average atomic mass of A is given by-
Percentage of A2 = 100-b
𝐴1 𝑏+𝐴2 (100−𝑏)
Muvg = 100
Note: Hydrogen has three isotopes-Protium, Deuterium and Tritium, Tritium nuclei is radioactive and is
unstable therefore, it is not found naturally.

Composition of the nucleus

The nucleus consists of two entities namely, protons and neutrons (collectively known as nucleons). The
positive charge inside the nucleus comes from the protons.
Neutrons are neutral particles. Free neutrons, unlike protons are unstable. It decays into a proton, an electron,
and a antineutrino.
The composition of the nucleus can be described using the following symbols and terms-
Z-atomic number = number of proton
N-neutron number = number if neutrons
A-mass number = Z + N = total number of protons and neutrons.

Note 1: Notation for nuclear species of nuclides- Where X is the chemical symbol of the species.
2. Isotopes have the same number of protons but different number of neutrons
3. All nuclides with same mass number are called isobars
4. Nuclides with same neutrons number N but different atomic number Z are called isotones

Mass-Energy Equivalence
According to Einstein’s Special Theory of Relativity, Mass is another form of energy and one can covert mass-
energy into other forms of energy and vice-versa.
Mass-energy equivalence relation.
E = mc2

Size of the Nucleus (PYQ 2015, 2013)

The radius of a nucleus of mass number A-
R = R0A1/3
Where R0 = 1.2 x 10-15 m
This means that the volume of the nucleus is proportional to A and thus the density of the nucleus is
independent of A. Different nuclei are like drops of liquid of constant density

Nuclear Binding Energy (PYQ 2010)

We know that the nucleus is made up of neutrons and protons. Therefore, it is logical to conclude that the
mass of the nucleus is equal to the total mass of the its individual protons and neutrons. However, the nuclear
mass M is always found to be less than this.
The different in mass of a nucleus and its constituents, ∆𝑀, is called mass defect and is given by-
∆M = [ZmP + ( A – Z ) mn I-M

Meaning of Mass Defect

Since the mass of the nucleus is less than the sum of masses of its constituents, the equivalent energy of the
nucleus is less than the sum of equivalent energies of its constituents. Therefore, if one wants to break a
nucleus into protons and neutrons, the extra energy ∆Mc2 has to be supplied. This energy required Eb is
related to mass defect-
Eb = ∆ Mc2
If a certain number of neutrons and protons are brought together to form a nucleus of a certain charge and
mass, an energy Eb will be released in the process. The energy Eb is called the binding energy of the nucleus. If
we separate a nucleus into its nucleons, we would have to supply a total energy equal to E b, to those particles.

Binding Energy per Nucleon (PYQ 2016)

The average energy per nucleon needed to separate a nucleus into its individual nucleons. The following is a
plot for the binding energy per nucleon (Ebn)-

We can make the following observations-

1. The binding energy per nucleon, Ebn, is practically constant, I.e., practically independent of the atomic
number for nuclei of middle mass number ( 30 < A < 170).
2. Ebn is lower for both light nuclei (A < 30) and heavy nuclei (A> 170).

We can draw the following conclusions from the plot-

1. The force is attractive and sufficiently strong to produce a binding energy of a few MeV per nucleon.
2. The constancy of the binding energy in the range 30 < A < 170 is a consequence of the fact that the
nuclear force is short-ranged. Consider a particular nucleon inside a sufficiently large nucleus. It will be
under the influence of only some of its neighbors, which come within the range of the nuclear force. If
any other nucleon is at distance more than the range of the nuclear force from the particular nucleon.
 It will have no influence on the binding energy of the nucleon under consideration. If nucleon can gave
a maximum of p neighbors within the range of nuclear force, its binding energy would be proportional
to p. Let the binding energy of the nucleus be pk, where k is a constant having the dimensions of
energy. If we increase A by adding nucleons, they will not charge the binding energy of a nucleon
inside. Since most of the nucleon would be small. The binding energy per nucleon is a constant and is
approximately equal to pk. This is called saturation property of nuclear force.
3. A very heavy nucleus, say A = 240, has lower binding energy per nucleon compared to that of a nucleus
with A = 120. Thus, if a nucleus A = 240 breaks into two A = 120 nuclei, nucleons get more tightly
bound. This implies energy would be released in the process. This is called nuclear fission.
4. Consider two very light nuclei ( A ≤ 10) joining to form a heavier nucleus. The binding energy per
nucleon of the fused heavier nuclei is more than the binding energy per nucleon of the lighter nuclei.
This means that the final system is more tightly bound than the initial system. Therefore, energy would
be released in such a process of fusion.
5. How is the size of a nucleus estimated? Write the relation between the radius of a nucleus and its mass
number.
Nuclear size. Like an atom, a nucleus is not a solid object. Its surface is not a well-defined boundary.
Still we can assign a size to the nucleus.
By performing scattering experiments using high energy probes such as fast moving protons, neutrons
or electrons, nuclear sizes of different elements have been accurately measured. Assuming nuclei to be
spherical, their volumes can be estimated.
Experimental observations show that the volume of a nucleus is directly proportional to its mass
number.
4
If R is the radius of a nucleus having mass number A, then 3π3 ∝A
Or R ∝ A1/3
Thus, the radius R of a nucleus is proportional to cube root of its mass number. We can write R = R 0 A1/3
Here R0 is a constant, which is of the order of the range of nuclear force. It is believed to be the
average nucleon size and is known as nuclear unit radius. The value of R0 depends on the nature of
probe particles. For electrons, R0 = 1.2 x 10-15 m = 1.2 fm
6. Prove that the nuclear density is same for all nuclei Give an estimate of nuclear density.
Nuclear density The density of nuclear matter is the ratio of the mass of a nucleus of its volume. As the
volume of a nucleus is directly proportional to its mass number A, so the density of nuclear matter is
independent of the size of the nucleus. Thus the nuclear matter behaves like a liquid of constant
density. Different nuclei are like drops of this liquid, of different sizes but of same density.
Let A be the mass number and R be the radius of a nucleus. If m is the average mass of a nucleon, then
Mass of nucleus = mA
Volume of nucleus
4
= 3πR3
4 4
=3π(R0A1/3)3= 3πR30A
∴ Nuclear density,
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑛𝑢𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑢𝑠
𝑃nu = 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑛𝑢𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑢𝑠
𝑚𝐴 3𝑚
𝑜𝑟 Pnu = 4 = 4𝜋𝑅
𝜋𝑅 30 𝐴 30
3
7. What are nuclear forces? Give their important properties.
Nuclear force. The average separation between two nucleons is about 10-15 m. At this separation,
positively charged protons feel strong columbic repulsion. Also the gravitational force of attraction
between two nucleons is about 10-36 times smaller than the electrostatic repulsion, it cannot hold the
nucleons together. So there must be some other strong attractive force acting between the nucleons
that over-comes the electrostatic repulsion. This strong attractive interaction acting between the
nucleons is called nuclear force or strong interaction.
Nuclear force is a strong attractive force that binds the protons and neutrons together inside a tiny
nucleus.
Properties of nuclear force:
1. Strongest interaction. Nuclear force is the strongest interaction known in nature that holds the
nucleons together despite the strong electrostatic repulsion between the protons. The relative
strength of gravitational, electrostatic and nuclear forces is
Fg : Fe : Fn = 1 : 1036 : 1038
2. Short-range force. Unlike gravitational and electrostatic forces, nuclear force is a short-range force.
It operates only upto a very short distance of about 2-3 fm from a nucleon.
3. Variation with distance. The graph of P.E. of a pair of nucleons as a function of their separation r is
shown in Fig. 13.4. The P.E. is minimum at a distance r0= 0.8 fm.

Graph of P.E. a pair of nucleons as a function of their separation.

(i) For r < r0, the P.E. increases rapidly with decreasing r. It indicates a strong repulsive nuclear
force.
(ii) For r < r0, the P.E. gradually decreases to zero with increasing r. it indicates attractive
nuclear force. The attraction is maximum at r0 ≈ 0.8 fm and varies inversely not as the
square of distance but depends on some higher power of distance.
(iii) For r≈ 4 fm, the nuclear force becomes zero. It indicates that nuclear force is a short range
force.
The negative sign of P.E. signifies that the nuclear force is attractive.
4. Charge independent character. It is seen from experiments that the attractive force between two
neutrons (nn-force) is nearly equal to that between two protons (pp-force) or between a proton
and a neutron (pn-force). Thus the nuclear force does not depend on the charge of the particles.
In case of pp-nuclear force, there is a repulsive force between two protons, but this is weak
compared to the strong nuclear force.
5. Saturation effect. Nuclear forces show saturation effect, i.e., a nucleon interacts only with its
neighboring nucleon. This property is supported by the fact that the binding energy per nucleon is
same over a wide range of mass numbers.
6. Spin dependent character. The nuclear force between two nucleons having parallel spins is
stronger than that between two nucleons having antiparallel spins.
7. Exchange forces. In 1935, a Japanese physicist H.Yukawa suggested that the nuclear force between
two nucleons arises from the constant exchange of particles, called mesons, between them
8. Non-central forces. The nuclear force between two nucleons does not act along the line joining
their centers.

Example: Calculate the binding energy of an ∝-particle in MeV. Given:

Mp (mass of proton) = 1.007825 amu
Mn (mass of neutron) = 1.008665 amu
Mass of He nucleus = 4.002800 amu,
1 amu = 931 MeV.
Example: Express one atomic mass unit in energy units, first in loules and them in MeV. Using this
16
express, the mass defect of O in MeV.
8
40
Example: Calculate the binding energy per nucleon of Ca nucleus. Given
20
40
M( Ca) = 39.962589 amu
20
Mn (mass of a neutron) = 1.008665 amu
Mp (mass of a proton) = 1.007825 amu

7
1. The mass of Li is 0.042 amu less than the sum of masses of its nucleons. Find the B.E. per nucleon.
3
12 12
2. Calculate the binding energy per nucleon for a C nucleus. Atomic mass of C= 12 amu, mass of
6 6
a proton = 1.007825 amu, mass of a neutron = 1.008665 amu.
3. Calculate the binding energy of a deuteron. Given that
Mass of proton = 1.007825 amu
Mass of a neutron = 1.008665 amu
Mass of a deuteron = 2.014103 amu
20
4. The binding energy of Ne is 160.6 MeV. Find the atomic mass, given that
10
1
Mass of H = 1.007825 amu
1
1
Mass of n = 1.008665 amu
0
31
5. Calculate the binding energy per nucleon (B.E./nucleon) in the nuclei of P. Given:
15
31 1 1
( P) = 30.97376 amu, m[ n]= 1.00865 amu, m[ 𝐻]= 1.00782 amu
15 0 1
35
6. Calculate the binding energy per nucleon of CI nucleus. Given that
17
35
Mass of CI = 34.980000 u,
17
Mass of proton = 1.007825 u,
Mass of neutron = 1.008665 u and 1 atomic mass unit (1u) = 931 MeV.
56
7. Calculate the binding energy per nucleon of Fe nucleus. Given that
26
56
Mass of Fe= 55.934939 amu
26
Mass of a neutron = 1.008665 amu
Mass of a proton = 1.007825 amu