CHAPTER: 14

BIOMOLECULES
INTRODUCTION:
A living system grows, sustains and reproduces itself. The most amazing thing about all living
system is that it is composed of non-living atoms and molecules. The pursuit of knowledge of
what goes on chemically within a living system falls in the domain of biochemistry.
Living systems are made up of various complex biomolecules like
carbohydrates, proteins, nucleic acids, lipids, etc. proteins and carbohydrates are essential
constituents of our food. These biomolecules interact with each other and constitute the
molecular logic of life processes. In addition, some simple molecules like vitamins and mineral
salts also play an important role in the functions of organisms. Structures and functions of
some of these biomolecules are discussed in this Unit.

CARBOHYDRATES
The word Carbohydrate is derived from French word hydrate de carbone which means
hydrates of carbon having the formula Cn(H2O)n. But some carbohydrates do not obey this
formula and carbohydrates do not contain water molecules. Hence the word Carbohydrate lost
its significance.

Carbohydrates are polyhydroxy derivatives of aldehydes or ketones or yield such

compounds on hydrolysis. They have the general formula Cx(H2O)Y.
Ex: Glucose, Maltose, Starch etc.

Note: These are also called as saccharides due to their sweet taste. In Latin Saccharum
means sugar.

Classifications of carbohydrates:

I. Based on the number of simple units present per molecule: They are classified into
the following three types.
1) Monosaccharides 2) Oligosaccharides 3) Polysaccharides

1. Monosaccharides: Simplest carbohydrates which cannot be further hydrolyzed are called

monosaccharides. They have the general formula Cn(H2O)n.
Example: Ribose, glucose, fructose, galactose, mannose etc.

2. Oligosaccharides: Carbohydrates which on hydrolysis yield 2 to 10

monosaccharide units are called as oligosaccharides.
They are further classified as disaccharides, trisaccharides, tetrasaccharides etc.,
depending on the number of monosaccharide units present in them.

SKCH COMP. PU COLLEGE 1 DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY

 a) Disaccharides: Carbohydrates which on hydrolysis give two monosaccharide units
are called as disaccharides. They have the general formula Cn(H2O)n-1
Example:

Disaccharide Composition

Maltose Glucose + Glucose

Sucrose Glucose + fructose

Lactose Glucose + Galactose

b) Trisaccharides: Carbohydrates which on hydrolysis give three monosaccharide units

are called as trisaccharides. They have the general formula Cn(H2O)n-2 .
Example: Raffinose (Glucose + fructose + galactose)

3. Polysaccharides: Carbohydrates which on hydrolysis give a large number of

monosaccharide units (i.e >10 simple units) are called as polysaccharides.

POLYSACCHARIDE FUNCTION

STARCH The storage polysaccharide present in plants.

CELLULOSE The structural polysaccharide present in plants.

GLYCOGEN The storage polysaccharide present in animals.

II. Based on the taste and solubility:

They are classified into the following two types.
1) Sugars

2) Non-sugars

1. Sugars: Carbohydrates which are sweet to taste are called as sugars. They are crystalline
solids and soluble in water.
Example: All monosaccharides and oligosaccharides.

Classifications of sugars: Based on the action of sugars on Tollen’s reagent, Fehling’s

solution and Benedict’s reagent sugars are classified as follows.

a. Reducing sugars

b. Non – reducing sugars.

SKCH COMP. PU COLLEGE 2 DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY

 a. Reducing sugars: The sugars which reduce Fehling’s solution and Benedict’s reagent to
red precipitate of cuprous oxide or Tollen’s reagent into black precipitate of silver are called
reducing sugars.

Reducing sugars contain free aldehydic or ketonic group and hence they exist in α and β form.

Example: All monosaccharides and disaccharides like Maltose, Lactose etc.

b. Non – reducing sugars: The sugars which do not reduce Fehling’s solution and Benedict’s
reagent to red precipitate of cuprous oxide or Tollen’s reagent in to black precipitate of silver
are called non-reducing sugars.

Non-Reducing sugars do not contain free aldehydic or ketonic group and hence they donot
exist in α and β form.

Example: sucrose

2. Non-sugars: Carbohydrates which are not sweet to taste are called as non-sugars. They
are amorphous solids and are insoluble in water.
Example: All polysaccharides.

Classification of monosaccharides:

I. Based on the principal functional group: They are classified into the following two types.
1) Aldoses
2) Ketoses
1. Aldoses: Monosaccharides consisting of aldehyde as principal functional group are
called as Aldoses
Example: Glucose, galactose, ribose….etc.

2. Ketoses: Monosaccharides consisting of ketone as principal functional group are called as

Ketoses
Example: Fructose, sorbose….etc.

II. Based on the number of carbon atoms: They are classified into the following five types.

1) Trioses 2) Tetroses 3) Pentoses 4) Hexoses

5) Heptoses
1. Trioses: Monosaccharides consisting of three carbon atoms per molecule are called as
trioses.
Example: Glyceraldehyde

2. Tetroses: Monosaccharides consisting of four carbon atoms per molecule are called as
tetroses.
Example: Erythrose, threose

SKCH COMP. PU COLLEGE 3 DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY

3. Pentoses: Monosaccharides consisting of five carbon atoms per molecule are called as
pentoses.
Example: Ribose, arabinose

4. Hexoses: Monosaccharides consisting of six carbon atoms per molecule are called as
Hexoses.
Example: Glucose, fructose, galactose, mannose

5. Heptoses: Monosaccharides consisting of seven carbon atoms per molecule are called as
Heptoses.
Example: Sedoheptulose

GLUCOSE (C6H12O6)

Glucose is a monosaccharide present in plants. It is an aldohexose; generally called as Grape

sugar because it is found in grapes to an extent of 20-30%.It is dextrorotatory hence also called
as dextrose.

Preparation:

1. From sucrose (Cane sugar): Sucrose on boiling with dilute HCl or H2SO4 in alcoholic
medium, acid hydrolysis takes place forming equal amounts of glucose and fructose.
+
H
C12H22O11 + H2O C6H12O 6 + C6H12O 6

Sucrose Glucose Fructose

2. From starch:
Starch on boiling with dilute H2SO4 at a temperature of 393K under 2-3 atm pressure, acid
hydrolysis take place forming only glucose.
+
H
(C6H10O5)n + n H2O n C6H12O6
393K, 2-3 atm
Starch Glucose

Elucidation of open chain structure of Glucose:

1. Molecular formula: From elementary analysis and molecular mass determination, the
molecular formula of glucose is found to be C6H12O6.

2. Parent carbon chain: Glucose on reduction using hydroiodic acid (HI) in presence of red
Phosphorus, n-hexane is obtained. This reaction indicates that all the 6 carbon atoms in
glucose are in a straight chain.

SKCH COMP. PU COLLEGE 4 DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY

 CHO
Red P/ HI
(CHOH) 4 CH3-CH2-CH2CH2-CH2-CH3

CH2OH
Glucose n-Hexane
3. Functional group:
a. Aqueous solution of glucose is neutral. This confirms the absence of -COOH group.
b. One mole of glucose adds on to one mole of hydrogen cyanide (HCN) forming glucose
cyanohydrin.
CN
CHO CH-OH
(CHOH) 4 + HCN (CHOH) 4
CH2OH CH2OH
Glucose Glucose cyanohydrin

c. One mole of glucose reacts with one mole of hydroxyl amine (NH2OH) forming glucose
oxime.
CHO CH=N-OH
(CHOH) 4 + NH 2OH (CHOH) 4 + H2O
CH2OH CH2OH
Glucose Glucose oxime

This reaction indicates the presence of a carbonyl (-CO-) group which means that glucose
contains either aldehyde (-CHO) group or ketone (-CO-) group.

4. Confirmation of aldehyde group:

Glucose on oxidation with mild oxidising agents like bromine water gets oxidised to
gluconic acid containing same number of carbon atoms. This reaction indicates that
glucose contains an aldehyde group.

CHO COOH
Br2 water
(CHOH) 4 + (O) (CHOH) 4
CH2OH CH2OH
Glucose Gluconic acid

5. Position of aldehyde group:

Aldehyde group being monovalent in nature hence it should always be present as first
carbon atom.

6. Presence of 5 –OH groups:

Glucose on acetylation with acetic anhydride in presence of pyridine, one mole of glucose
reacts with five moles of acetic anhydride forming glucose penta acetate. This reaction
indicates that glucose contains 5 -OH groups.

SKCH COMP. PU COLLEGE 5 DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY

 CHO CHO
(CHOH) 4 + 5 (CH3CO)2O (CH-O-CO-CH3)4 + 5 CH3COOH
CH2OH CH2-O-CO-CH3
Glucose Acetic anhydride Glucose penta acetate Acetic acid

7. Presence of primary –OH groups:

Both glucose and gluconic acid on oxidation with nitric acid gives saccharic acid containing
same number of carbon atoms. This reaction indicates the presence of primary alcoholic
group..

CHO COOH COOH

HNO3 HNO3
(CHOH) 4 + 3 (O) (CHOH) 4 2 (O) + (CHOH) 4
-H 2O -H 2O
CH2OH COOH CH2OH
Glucose Saccharic acid Gluconic acid

8. Position of –OH groups: If two –OH groups are present on the same C-atom then the
molecule becomes unstable as it loses a molecule of water but glucose is a stable molecule
hence out of 6 C-atoms one of the C-atom is in the form of aldehydic group so the
remaining five C-atoms should contain one –OH group each.

9. Structure of glucose: Taking into account of all the above facts, Bayer in 1870 suggested
the following open chain structure for glucose.
CHO
H OH
HO H
H OH
H OH
CH2OH
Glucose
The IUPAC name of glucose is 2,3,4,5,6 -pentahydroxyhexanal. Later in 1886 Killiani
confirmed the structure of glucose by its synthesis.

Note: The above structure contains 4 asymmetric carbon atoms. Hence 16 optical isomers
are possible. Finally based on the configuration, the following spatial arrangement is given for
glucose molecule.

Structures of Glucose, Gluconic acid and Saccharic acid:

The exact spatial arrangement of different -OH groups in glucose was given by Fischer after
studying many other properties. Its configuration is correctly represented as follows along with
the structures of gluconic acid and saccharic acid.

SKCH COMP. PU COLLEGE 6 DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY

 CHO COOH COOH
H OH H OH H OH
HO H HO H HO H
H OH H OH H OH
H OH H OH H OH
CH2OH CH2OH COOH
Glucose Gluconic acid Saccharic acid

Naming of Glucose:
Glucose is correctly named as D(+)-glucose. ‘D’ before the name of glucose represents
the configuration whereas ‘(+)’ represents dextrorotatory nature of the molecule. It may
be remembered that ‘D’ and ‘L’ have no relation with the optical activity of the compound.

Meaning of D– and L– notations: The letters ‘D’ or ‘L’ before the name of any compound
indicate the relative configuration of a particular stereoisomer. This refers to their relation with
a particular isomer of glyceraldehyde. Glyceraldehyde contains one asymmetric carbon atom
and exists in two enantiomeric forms as shown below.
CHO CHO
H OH HO H

CH2OH CH2OH
(+) - Glyceraldehyde (-) - Glyceraldehyde

 All those compounds which can be chemically correlated to (+) isomer of glyceraldehyde
are said to have D-configuration
 All those which can be correlated to (-) isomer of glyceraldehyde are said to have L-
configuration.
For assigning the configuration of monosaccharides, it is the lowest asymmetric
carbon atom (as shown below) which is compared. As in (+) glucose, if the -OH on the lowest
asymmetric carbon (highest locant asymmetric C-atom) is on the right side which is
comparable to (+) glyceraldehyde, so it is assigned D-configuration.
CHO
H OH
CHO HO H
H OH
H OH
H OH
CH2OH CH2OH
(+) - Glyceraldehyde D-(+)-Glucose

Similarly in (+) glucose, if the -OH on the lowest asymmetric carbon (highest locant
asymmetric C-atom) is on the left side which is comparable to (-) glyceraldehyde, so it is
assigned L-configuration.

SKCH COMP. PU COLLEGE 7 DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY

 CHO
H OH
CHO HO H
H OH
HO H
HO H
CH2OH CH2OH
(-) - Glyceraldehyde L-(+)-Glucose

Note: All naturally occurring carbohydrates are D – conformers.

CYCLIC STRUCTURE OF GLUCOSE:

Glucose containing aldehydic group, the open chain structure of glucose explained most of
the properties of aldehyde like reaction with Tollen’s reagent, Fehling’s solution…etc. but the
following reactions and facts could not be explained by this structure.
1. Glucose despite of having the aldehyde group,
a) It did not give immediate pink colour with Schiff’s reagent.
b) It did not give orange red precipitate with 2,4-DNPH.
c) It did not undergo addition reaction with NaHSO3.
2. The glucose penta acetate does not react with hydroxylamine indicating the absence
of free -CHO group.
3. Glucose is found to exist in two different crystalline forms which are named as α and β.
The α -form of glucose (m.p. 419 K) is obtained by crystallisation from concentrated
solution of glucose at 303 K while the β -form (m.p. 423 K) is obtained by crystallisation
from hot and saturated aqueous solution at 371 K.

This behaviour could not be explained by the open chain structure of glucose. It
was proposed that one of the -OH groups may add to the -CHO group and form a cyclic
hemiacetal structure. It was found that glucose forms a six-membered ring in which the -OH
group at C5 is involved in ring formation. This explains the absence of -CHO group and also
existence of glucose in two forms as shown below. These two cyclic forms exist in equilibrium
with open chain structure.
O
Anomeric C-atom
H C
H OH H OH HO H
H OH H OH
H
HO H O HO
HO H O
H OH Hemi acetal linkage
H OH H OH
H H OH H
CH2OH CH2OH CH2OH
-D-(+)-Glucose  -D-(+)-Glucose

The two cyclic hemiacetal forms of glucose differ only in the configuration of the hydroxyl group
at C1, called anomeric carbon (the aldehyde carbon before cyclisation). Such isomers, i.e., α-
form and β-form, are called anomers.

SKCH COMP. PU COLLEGE 8 DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY

ANOMERS:
Two carbohydrate molecules differing in the position of the –OH group on the anomeric
C-atom are called as anomers.

Example: α-D-(+)-glucose and β-D-(+)-glucose

Anomeric C-atom: The first C-atom in the ring is called as anomeric C-atom.

The six membered cyclic structure of glucose is called pyranose structure (α– or β–), in
analogy with pyran. Pyran is a cyclic organic compound with one oxygen atom and five carbon
atoms in the ring. The cyclic structure of glucose is more correctly represented by Haworth
structure as given below.

CH2OH CH2OH
O H O H H O OH
H H
OH H OH H
HO OH HO H
H OH H OH

Pyran  -D-(+)-Glucopyranose  -D-(+)-Glucopyranose

Fructose:
It has the molecular formula C6H12O6. It also called as fruit sugar (... mostly found in fruits), it
is laevorotatory and hence it is called laevulose. It is a ketohexose. The open chain and the
ring structures of fructose are as follows

CH2OH

C O HOH2C OH HO CH2OH
HO H
HO H O HO H O
H OH H OH H OH
H H
H OH
CH2OH CH2OH CH2OH
D-(-)-Fructose  -D-(-)-Fructofuranose  -D-(-)-Fructofuranose

The cyclic structures of two anomers of fructose are represented by Haworth structures as
given.
HOH2C O CH2OH HOH2C O OH
H HO H HO
H OH H CH2OH
OH H OH H
-D-(-)-Fructofuranose  -D-(-)-Fructofuranose

SKCH COMP. PU COLLEGE 9 DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY

DISACCHARIDES:
In disaccharides the two monosaccharides are joined together by an oxide linkage formed by
the loss of a water molecule. Such a linkage between two monosaccharide units through
oxygen atom is called glycosidic linkage.
1. Sucrose: It has the molecular formula C12H22O11. It also called as cane sugar (... mostly
found in sugar cane). It is a disaccharide of α-D-(+)-Glucopyranose and β-D-(-)-
Fructofuranose. These two monosaccharides are held together by a glycosidic linkage
between C1 of α-D-(+)-Glucopyranose and C2 of β-D-(-)-Fructofuranose.
Since the reducing groups of glucose and fructose are involved in glycosidic bond formation,
sucrose is a non reducing sugar.

CH2OH

H
O H
H
OH H -D-Glucose
HO
H OH Glycosidic
linkage
HOH 2C O O

H HO
 -D-Fructose
H CH2OH

OH H
SUCROSE

Note: Sucrose is dextrorotatory but after hydrolysis gives dextrorotatory glucose and
laevorotatory fructose. Since the laevorotation of fructose (–92.4°) is more than dextrorotation
of glucose (+ 52.5°), the mixture is laevorotatory. Thus, hydrolysis of sucrose brings about a
change in the sign of rotation, from dextro (+) to laevo (–) and the product is named as invert
sugar, therefore acid hydrolysis of cane sugar i.e sucrose is also called as inversion of cane
sugar.

2. Maltose: It has the molecular formula C12H22O11. It also called as malt sugar (... mostly
found in malts). It is a disaccharide of α-D-(+)-Glucopyranose and α-D-(+)-Glucopyranose.
These two monosaccharides are held together by a glycosidic linkage between C1 and C4
of the two α-D-(+)-Glucopyranose.
Since the reducing group of one of the glucose unit is free, maltose is a reducing sugar.

SKCH COMP. PU COLLEGE 10 DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY

 CH2OH CH2OH

H O H H O H
H H
OH H OH H
O OH
HO
H OH H OH
-D-Glucose -D-Glucose
MALTOSE

3. Lactose: It has the molecular formula C12H22O11. It also called as milk sugar (... mostly
found in milk). It is a disaccharide of β-D-(+)-Galactopyranose and β-D-(+)-Glucopyranose.
These two monosaccharides are held together by a glycosidic linkage between C1 of β-D-
(+)-Galactopyranose and C4 of β-D-(+)-Glucopyranose.
Since the reducing group on the glucose unit is free, lactose is a reducing sugar.

CH2OH CH2OH
HO O H O OH
H H
OH H O OH H
H H H
H OH H OH
 -D-Galactose  -D-Glucose

LACTOSE
POLYSACCHARIDES:
Polysaccharides contain a large number of monosaccharide units joined together by glycosidic
linkages. These are the most commonly encountered carbohydrates in nature. They mainly
act as the food storage or structural materials.

1. Starch: It is the main storage polysaccharide of plants. It is the most important dietary
source for human beings. High content of starch is found in cereals, roots, tubers and some
vegetables. It is a polymer of α-D-(+)-Glucopyranose units and consists of two components
namely:
a) Amylose and b) Amylopectin

a) Amylose: It is a water soluble component which constitutes about 15-20% of starch.

Chemically amylose is a long unbranched chain with 200-1000 α-D-(+)-Glucopyranose
units held by C1-C4 glycosidic linkage.

SKCH COMP. PU COLLEGE 11 DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY

 CH2OH CH2OH CH2OH

H O H H O H H O H
H H H
OH H OH H OH H
O O O O

H OH H OH H OH
- link - link
AMYLOSE
b) Amylopectin: It is a water insoluble component and constitutes about 80- 85% of
starch. It is a branched chain polymer of α-D-(+)-Glucopyranose units in which chain is
formed by C1-C4 glycosidic linkage whereas branching occurs by C1-C6 glycosidic linkage.
CH2OH CH2OH

H O H H O H
H H
OH H OH H - link
O O O
H OH H OH Branch at C6
CH2OH CH2 CH2OH

H O H H O H H O H
H H H
OH H OH H OH H
O O O O

H OH H OH H OH
- link - link

AMYLOPECTIN

2. Cellulose: It is the main structural polysaccharide of plants and it is the most abundant
organic substance in plant kingdom. It is a predominant constituent of cell wall of plant
cells.
It is a straight chain polysaccharide composed only of β-D-(+)-Glucopyranose units held
by C1-C4 glycosidic linkage.
CH2OH

H O O
H
CH2OH OH H
O O H
H
H H
CH2OH OH
OH H
H O O H
H
H OH
OH H
O H
H OH
CELLULOSE

SKCH COMP. PU COLLEGE 12 DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY

3. Glycogen: It is the main storage polysaccharide of animals. It is also known as animal
starch because its structure is similar to amylopectin and is rather more highly branched.
It is present in liver, muscles and brain. When the body needs glucose, enzymes break the
glycogen down to glucose. Glycogen is also found in yeast and fungi.

IMPORTANCE OF CARBOHYDRATES:

Carbohydrates are essential for life in both plants and animals.

1. They form a major portion of our food (source of energy).

Carbohydrate as a source of energy:

Carbohydrates normally consumed in the form of starch, are hydrolysed by the enzymes
namely salivary amylase, pancreatic amylase etc. into monosaccharides, mainly
glucose. The glucose is absorbed into the blood and is carried to the tissues. Here
glucose gets oxidized to carbon dioxide and water with the release of energy.

C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H2O + Energy

This energy is used in muscular activity, cell synthesis and to maintain normal body
temperature.
Any excess of glucose is converted into glycogen which is stored in the liver and
muscles. Glycogen serves as a reserve food. Whenever the necessity arises, glycogen
is hydrolysed into glucose.

2. Honey has been used for a long time as an instant source of energy by ‘Vaids’ in ayurvedic
system of medicine.
3. Carbohydrates are used as storage molecules as starch in plants and glycogen in animals.
4. Cell wall of bacteria and plants is made up of cellulose. We build furniture, etc. from
cellulose in the form of wood and cloth ourselves with cellulose in the form of cotton fibre.
5. They provide raw materials for many important industries like textiles, paper, lacquers and
breweries.
6. Two aldopentoses viz. D-ribose and 2-deoxy-D-ribose are present in nucleic acids.
7. Carbohydrates are found in biosystem in combination with many proteins and lipids.

PROTEINS
Proteins are the complex nitrogenous compounds which are condensation polymers of
α–amino acids having molecular mass greater than 10,000U

Amino Acids: Organic compounds containing both amino and carboxylic acid groups in the
same molecule are called as amino acids.

SKCH COMP. PU COLLEGE 13 DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY

α- Amino Acids: Amino acids consisting the –NH2 group in the α-position with respect to –
COOH group are called as  - amino acids

These are the building blocks of proteins. There are about 20 naturally occurring  -
amino acids.

 - Amino acids are represented by the general formula

COOH

H2N H

R
Amino acid
Where ‘R’ is -H, alkyl or a complex group.

Characteristic features of α- amino acids:

 α- amino acids are usually colourless, crystalline solids.

 These are water-soluble, high melting solids and behave like salts rather than simple
amines or carboxylic acids. This behaviour is due to the presence of both acidic (carboxyl
group) and basic (amino group) groups in the same molecule.
 They are amphoteric in nature.
 In  - amino acids, both the amino group and carboxylic acid group are connected to the
same carbon atom
 Except glycine, all other naturally occurring α-amino acids are optically active, since the
α-carbon atom is asymmetric. These exist both in ‘D’ and ‘L’ forms. Most naturally
occurring amino acids have L-configuration. L-Aminoacids are represented by writing
the –NH2 group on left hand side.
 There are totally 20 naturally occurring α- amino acids out of which 10 are essential
α- amino acids and the remaining 10 are non essential α- amino acids
 All α-amino acids have trivial names, which usually reflect the property of that compound
or its source.
Example: Glycine is so named since it has sweet taste (in Greek glykos means sweet)
Tyrosine was first obtained from cheese (in Greek, tyros means cheese.)
 Amino acids are generally represented by a three letter symbol, sometimes one letter
symbol is also used.
SOME IMPORTANT AMINO ACIDS AND THEIR FORMULAS:

Name of the amino Characteristic Three letter One letter

Sl. No
acids features of side chain symbol code

1 Glycine -H Gly G

SKCH COMP. PU COLLEGE 14 DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY

 2 Alanine -CH3 Ala A

3 Valine* (CH3)2-CH- Val V

4 Leucine* (CH3)2-CH-CH 2- Leu L

CH3-CH2-CH-
5 Isoleucine* l
CH3
Ile I
HN=C-NH-(CH 2)3-
6 Arginine* l Arg R
NH 2

7 Lysine* H2N-(CH 2)4- Lys K

8 Glutamic acid HOOC-CH2-CH2- Glu E

9 Aspartic acid HOOC-CH 2- Asp D

O
10 Glutamine ll Gln Q
H2N-C-CH2-CH2-
O
11 Asparagine ll Asn N
H2N-C-CH2-
H3C-CH-
12 Threonine* l Thr T
OH
13 Serine HO-CH 2- Ser S

14 Cysteine HS-CH 2- Cys C

15 Methionine* H3C-S-CH2-CH2- Met M

16 phenylalanine* CH2 Phe F

17 Tyrosine HO CH2 Tyr Y

CH2
18 Tryptophan* Trp W
NH
CH2
N
19 Histidine* His H
N
H
HO

20 Proline N Pro P
O H
(entire structures)

* Essential amino acids

SKCH COMP. PU COLLEGE 15 DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY

 CLASSIFICATION OF α- AMINO ACIDS:

I. Based on the chemical nature: Depending upon the relative number of –NH2 and –COOH
groups, α-amino acids are classified into three types.
1. Neutral Amino Acids: Amino acids containing equal number of -NH2 and -COOH groups
are called as neutral amino acids.
Example: Glycine, Alanine, serine…..etc.

2. Acidic amino acids: Amino acids containing more number of -COOH groups than -NH2
groups are called as acidic amino acids.
Example: Aspartic acid, Glutamic acid…..etc.

3. Basic amino acids: Amino acids containing less number of -COOH groups than -NH2
groups are called as basic amino acids.
Example: Lysine, hystidine…..etc.

II. Based on the requirement or biological importance: Depending upon the requirement
of α-amino acids to the organisms, they are classified into two types.

1. Essential amino acids: Amino acids which cannot be synthesised by the human body
and hence should be supplied through diet are called as essential amino acids.
Example: Lysine, Leucine, Isoleucine …..etc.

2. Non – essential amino acids: Amino acids which can be synthesised by the human body
are called as non-essential amino acids
Example: Glycine, Alanine, serine …..etc.

III. Based on the nature of R-group or structure: Depending upon the nature of the R- group
or structure, α-amino acids are classified into three types.
1. Aliphatic amino acids: Amino acids containing aliphatic chain as R-groups are called as
aliphatic amino acids.
Example: Glycine, Alanine, Serine …..etc.

2. Aromatic amino acids: Amino acids containing at least one benzene ring as R-groups
are called as aromatic amino acids.
Example: Tyrosine, Phenyl alanine …..etc.

3. Hetero cyclic amino acids: Amino acids containing heterocyclic ring as R-groups are
called as heterocyclic amino acids.
Example: Histidine, Proline, and tryptophan

SKCH COMP. PU COLLEGE 16 DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY

PROPERTIES OF AMINO ACIDS:

1. Amphoteric nature: Due the presence of both amino group (basic) and the carboxylic
acid group (Acidic) in the same molecule, they can act both as acid as well as base. Hence
amino acids are amphoteric in nature.
Example:
+ -
HOOC-CH-NH 2 + HCl HOOC-CH-NH 3Cl
I I
R R
Amino acid
- +
H2N-CH-COOH + NaOH H2N-CH-COO Na + H2O
I I
R R
Amino acid

2. Zwitter ion: At isoelectric point amino acids exists as a dipolar ion due to internal
neutralization .This dipolar ion is called as zwitter ion.

Isoelectric point + -
H2N-CH-COOH H3N-CH-COO
I I
R R
Amino acid Zwitter ion

The neutral molecule and the Zwitter ion are in equilibrium with one another.

3. Iso-electric point: It is a particular PH at which amino acids exists as zwitter ion is called
as isoelectric point.
At this point the amino acids doesn’t move either towards the cathode or anode
OR
The pH at which an amino acid molecule doesn’t move towards the cathode or the
anode in an electric field is called the isoelectric point.

Note: Each amino acid has its own characteristic isoelectric point
Example: For glycine it is 6.1, for Cysteine 5.0 …..etc..

Peptide Bond:
A peptide bond is an amide bond (–CO–NH–) formed between two amino acid
molecules.
Peptide bond
O O O O
II II II II
H2N-CH-C-OH + H-N-CH-C-OH H2N-CH-C-N-CH-C-OH
I I I I I I
R H R R H R
Amino acid Amino acid Dipeptide

Polypeptide: Polypeptides are the complex nitrogenous compounds which are condensation
polymers of α–amino acids having molecular mass lesser than 10,000U

Note:
 An n-poly peptide contains (n-1) peptide bonds.

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 Example: When two amino acid molecules combine together, a Dipeptide is formed. A
dipeptide contains 1 peptide bond.
When three amino acid molecules combine we get a Tripeptide. A Tripeptide contains 2 peptide bonds.

Classification of proteins

I. Based on the molecular shape: Proteins are classified into two types on the basis of their
molecular shape.

(a) Fibrous proteins:

When the polypeptide chains run parallel and are held together by hydrogen and disulphide
bonds, then fibre like structure is formed, are known as fibrous protein. Such proteins are
generally insoluble in water. Some common
Example: keratin (present in hair, wool, silk) Myosin (present in muscles), etc.
(b) Globular proteins:
When the chains of polypeptides coil around to give a spherical shape globular proteins are
obtained. These are usually soluble in water.
Example: Insulin, albumins etc.

Extra:
II. Based on the biological functions: Proteins are classified into five types on the
basis of their
biological functions, as follows
1) Enzymes
2) Transport agents
3) Structural materials
4) Antibodies
5) Hormones

1) Enzymes: These are the proteins which catalyses biochemical reactions taking
place in the biological system. Hence they are also called as biochemical catalysts.

Example: 1) The enzyme Lipase hydrolyses oils and Fats into glycerol and fatty acids.
2) The Enzyme Pancreatic amylase hydrolyses starch into glucose.

Enzymes are specific in their actions they are active at 37oC and become inactive above
65oC.
A Conjugated enzyme consists of a protein part called apoenzyme and a non protein part
called coenzyme.

2) Transport agents: These are the proteins which carries simple molecules like O2
from one part of the body to another part of the body.

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Example: Hemoglobin of blood is a metal protein which carries oxygen from lungs to
various tissues and it bring back carbon dioxide from tissues to lungs. The metal ion
present in Hemoglobin is Fe2+.

3) Structural materials: These are the proteins which gives support and stability for
soft tissues.
Example: The protein keratin is present in Hair, nails, skin etc
The protein Collagen is present in cartilages

4) Antibodies: These are the proteins produced by the WBC of blood. These destroys
the pathogenic micro organisms called antigens causing diseases. Hence they act as
self defence mechanism. The excess antibodies produced remain in the body, gives
resistance to the body.
Example: Gamma globulins

5) Hormones: These are the proteins which are responsible for the growth and
reproduction. These are secreted by endocrine glands (ductless) after secretion, they
reaches their target and perform biological function. Hence they are called as
biochemical messengers
Example: Insulin, Oxytocin etc.
Insulin is a polypeptide hormone secreted by pancreas gland. It regulates the glucose level
in the blood by converting excess of glucose into glycogen.

Oxytocin is polypeptide hormone secreted by pituitary gland. It helps in the ejection of milk
during lactation; it helps in the contraction of muscles of uterus during the birth of child.

III. Based on the product of hydrolysis: Proteins are classified into three types on the
basis of their
Products of hydrolysis, as follows
1) Simple proteins: Proteins which gives only α-amino acids on hydrolysis are called
as simple proteins.
Example: Keratin, albumin…etc.
2) Conjugated proteins: Proteins which gives α-amino acids and non protein parts
like nucleic acids, lipids, sugars…etc (prosthetic group) on hydrolysis are called
as conjugated protiens.
Example: Nucleoproteins, Lipoprotiens, Glycoprotiens…etc.
3) Derived proteins: These are the proteins obtained by partial hydrolysis of simple
or conjugated proteins.
Example: Boiled egg white, curdling of milk ….etc
Protiens Proteoses Peptones Polypeptides

SKCH COMP. PU COLLEGE 19 DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY

Structure of proteins:
Structure and shape of proteins is studied at four different levels, they are; primary,
secondary, tertiary and quaternary,

1) Primary structure of proteins: The specific sequence in which the amino acids are linked
to each other in one or more poly peptide chains of a protein is called as primary structure

Note: Change in this primary structure i.e., the sequence of amino acids creates a different
protein.

2) Secondary structure of proteins:

It refers to the shape in which a long polypeptide chain can exist. These structures arises
due to the regular folding of the backbone of the polypeptide chain due to hydrogen
bonding between –CO– and –NH– groups of the peptide bond.
They are found to exist in two different types of structures namely,

a) -helix :
It is one of the most common ways in which a polypeptide chain forms all possible
hydrogen bonds by twisting into a right handed screw (helix) with the –NH group of
each amino acid residue hydrogen bonded to the _CO_ of an adjacent turn of the helix
as shown in the diagram.

.O.:
............

C
H .O.:
............

.N.C

.O.:H
............

.N.

.N.

Helix structure of protiens

SKCH COMP. PU COLLEGE 20 DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY

 b) β-pleated sheet structure:

H N
H N H N
R C H
R C H R C H
C O
C O ..... C O .....
. . . .
H N
H N H N
H C R
H C R H C R
O C
O C

...
O C

...

...
N
...
N H N H

.
.
R C H
R C H R C H
C O
C O... C O .....
. .
. ... H N
H N

 pleated sheet structure of proteins

This type of structure arises when all the peptide chains are stretched out to nearly
maximum extension and then laid side by side which are held together by intermolecular
hydrogen bonds. The structure resembles the pleated folds of drapery and therefore is
known as β-pleated sheet.

3) Tertiary structure of proteins: It arises due to over all folding, coiling and bending of
secondary structure producing 3-D structures. It gives rise to two major molecular shapes
namely fibrous and globular.
The main forces which stabilises the 2° and 3° structures of proteins are hydrogen
bonds, disulphide linkages, van der Waals and electrostatic forces of attraction.

4) Quaternary structure of proteins: The proteins are composed of two or more

polypeptide chains referred to as sub-units. The spatial arrangement of these subunits with
respect to each other is known as quaternary structure.

Primary Secondary Tertiary Quarternary

structure structure structure structure

SKCH COMP. PU COLLEGE 21 DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY

DENATURATION OF PROTEINS:
The loss of physical and biological activity of proteins without affecting the chemical
composition by the action of certain denaturing agents like heat, acid, alkali….etc. is
called as denaturation of proteins.
During denaturation of proteins 20 and 30 structures are destroyed but the 10 structure remains
intact.
Example: Coagulation of egg white on boiling , curdling of milk which is caused due to the
formation of lactic acid by the bacteria present in milk….etc.

Enzymes: These are the proteins which catalyses biochemical reactions taking place in
the biological system. Hence they are also called as biocatalysts. Almost all the enzymes are
globular proteins.
Enzymes are very specific for a particular reaction and for a particular substrate. They
are generally named after the compound or class of compounds upon which they work.

Example: 1) The enzyme maltase catalyses the hydrolysis of maltose into glucose.
2) The enzyme Lipase hydrolyses oils and Fats into glycerol and fatty acids.
3) The Enzyme Pancreatic amylase hydrolyses starch into glucose.
4) Sometimes enzymes are also named after the reaction, where they are used.
The enzymes which catalyse the oxidation of one substrate with simultaneous reduction of
another substrate are named as oxidoreductase enzymes. The ending of the name of an
enzyme is -ase.

Enzymes are specific in their actions they are active at 37oC and become inactive above 65oC.
A Conjugated enzyme consists of a protein part called apoenzyme and a non protein part called
coenzyme.

Mechanism of Enzyme Action:

Small quantities of enzymes are needed for the progress of a reaction. Similar to the action of
chemical catalysts, enzymes are said to reduce the magnitude of activation energy.

Example: Activation energy for acid hydrolysis of sucrose is 6.22 kJ mol–1, but when
hydrolysed by the enzyme sucrase, the activation energy is only 2.15 kJ mol-1.

VITAMINS: (Vita = life in latin)

Organic compounds which are required in small amounts in our daily diet to perform
specific biological function and normal maintenance of normal health and growth of the
organism, but their deficiency causes specific diseases are called as vitamins.

Note:
 Vitamins are designated by alphabets A, B, C, D, E, K, Some of them are further named
as sub-groups e.g. B1, B2, B6, B12, etc.

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 Excess of vitamins is also harmful and vitamin pills should not be taken without the advice
of doctor.
 The term “Vitamine” was coined from the word vital + amine since the earlier identified
compounds had amino groups. Later work showed that most of them did not contain amino
groups, so the letter ‘e’ was dropped and the term vitamin is used these days.

CLASSIFICATION OF VITAMINS:
Vitamins are classified into two groups based on their solubility in water or fat.

1. FAT SOLUBLE VITAMINS: Vitamins which are soluble in oils and fat are called as fat
soluble vitamins.
Example: vitamins A, D, E and K.
They are stored in liver and adipose (fat storing) tissues.

2. WATER SOLUBLE VITAMINS: Vitamins which are soluble in water are called as water
soluble vitamins.

Example: B and C group vitamins are soluble in water so they are grouped together.

Note: Water soluble Vitamins must be supplied regularly in diet because they are readily
excreted in urine and cannot be stored (except vitamin B12) in our body.
Some important vitamins, their sources and diseases caused by their deficiency are
listed below:

Sl. Name of
Sources Deficiency diseases
No. Vitamins
Vitamin A Fish liver oil, carrots, butter Xerophthalmia (hardening of
1
(Retinol) and milk cornea of eye), Night blindness

Vitamin B1 Yeast, milk, green Beri beri (loss of appetite),

2
(Thiamine) vegetables and cereals retarded growth.
Cheilosis (fissuring at corners of
Vitamin B2
3 Milk, eggwhite, liver, kidney mouth and lips), digestive
(Riboflavin)
disorders and burning sensation of
the skin.
Vitamin B6 Yeast, milk, egg yolk,
4 Convulsions
(Pyridoxine) cereals and grams

Vitamin B12 Pernicious anaemia (RBC

5 Meat, fish, egg and curd
(Cyanocobalamin) deficient in haemoglobin)

Vitamin C Citrus fruits, amla and

6 Scurvy (bleeding gums)
(Ascorbic acid) green leafy vegetables

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 Rickets (bone deformities in
Vitamin D Exposure to sunlight, fish
7 children) and osteomalacia (soft
(Calciferol) and egg yolk
bones and joint pain in adults)
Vitamin E Vegetable oils like wheat Increased fragility of RBCs and
8 (Tocopherol) germ oil, sunflower oil, etc. muscular weakness

Vitamin K
9 Green leafy vegetables Increased blood clotting time
(Phyrlloquinone)

NUCLEIC ACIDS:
These are the poly nucleotides which are present in the nucleus of the cell and are
responsible for the transmission of genetic information and are involved in the
synthesis of proteins are called as nucleic acids.

There are mainly two types of nucleic acids,

1) Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) 2) Ribonucleic acid (RNA).

CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF NUCLEIC ACIDS:

Complete hydrolysis of DNA /RNA yields the following
1. A pentose sugar 2. A Heterocyclic nitrogenous base 3. A Phosphoric acid

1. PENTOSE SUGAR:
The pentose sugar moiety present in DNA molecule is β-D-2-deoxyribose
HOH2C O OH
H H
H H
OH H
 -D-2-deoxyribose

The pentose sugar moiety present in RNA molecule, it is β-D-ribose.

HOH2C O OH
H H
H H
OH OH
 -D-Ribose
The carbon atoms of sugar are numbered as 1l, 2l, 3l..etc. in order to distinguish these from the bases.

2. HETEROCYCLIC NITROGENOUS BASE :

There are two types of heterocyclic nitrogenous bases namely,
a) PURINES: They have two heterocyclic fused rings.

SKCH COMP. PU COLLEGE 24 DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY

 NH2 O
N N NH
N

NH N NH N NH2
Adenine (A) Guanine (G)
PYRIMIDINES: They have a single heterocyclic ring.

NH2 O O
H3C
NH NH
N

NH O NH O
NH O
Cytosine (C) Thymine (T) Uracil (U)

DNA contains four bases i.e. adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C) and thymine (T). RNA
also contains four bases, the first three bases are same as in DNA but the fourth one is
uracil (U).
The carbon atoms of bases are numbered as 1, 2, 3…etc.

3. Phosphoric acid (H3PO4): It forms esters with hydroxy groups of sugars.

O
- -
O P O
-
O
NUCLEOSIDE: A unit formed by the attachment of a base to 1l position of sugar is known
as nucleoside.

Base + Sugar = Nucleoside

HOH2C O Base
H H
H H
OH OH
Nucleoside
NUCLEOTIDE: Nucleoside containing phosphoric acid at 5l-position of sugar moiety is
called as nucleotide.

Base + Sugar + phosphate = Nucleotide

O
-
O P O H2C O Base
- H
O H
H H
OH OH
Nucleotide

SKCH COMP. PU COLLEGE 25 DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY

FORMATION OF A DINUCLEOTIDE:
During the formation of a dinucleotide the –OH groups present on 5’ and 3’ carbon atoms of
the pentose sugar are involved in the ester linkage to form a phosphodiester.
O O
- -
O P O H2C O Base O P O H2C O Base
- H -
O H O H H
H H H 3'
H Phosphodiester
OH OH O OH linkage

-
+ O P O
O O
-
O P O H2C O Base H2C 5' O Base
-
O H H H H
H H H H
OH OH OH OH
Nucleotide Dinucleotide

Structure of RNA:
RNA has only single strand of polynucleotide chain. DNA consists of two such polynucleotide
chains held together by hydrogen bonds between the bases.

STRUCTURE OF DNA: WATSON AND CRICK MODEL OF DNA:

According to the model, DNA has the double – stranded, double helix. The structure is
comparable to a twisted ladder with uprights (sides) and rungs (steps). The uprights are
composed of repeating units of sugar and phosphate and the steps are composed of base
pairs. Base pairing is complementary i.e pairing occurs between A and T, G and C.
Nitrogenous bases of one strand are linked to the nitrogenous bases of other strand by

SKCH COMP. PU COLLEGE 26 DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY

hydrogen bonds. There are two hydrogen bonds between A and T (A=T) and three hydrogen
bonds between G and C (G C).

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN RNA AND DNA:

Sl.No. RNA DNA

1. It is a polymer of ribonucleotide It is a polymer of deoxyribonucleotide.
Contains ribose as the sugar Contains deoxyribose as the sugar
2.
component. component.
Nitrogen bases present are cytosine, Nitrogen bases present are cytosine,
3.
adenine and guanine( CUAG) thymine, adenine and guanine (CTAG)
4. Pyrimidine base Uracil is present Pyrimidine base Thymine is present

5. Has a shorter chain length Has a longer chain length

6. Has lower molecular weight Has higher molecular weight

7. Has a single Helix Has a double helix

8. Does not replicate. Self replication is possible.

RNA are of 3 types, they control the DNA is one type. It controls the hereditary
9.
synthesis of protein characters.

BIOLOGICAL IMPORTANCE OF DNA:

1. DNA controls and directs the synthesis of RNA.
2. DNA controls and directs the synthesis of proteins
3. DNA has capacity to replicate itself. This happens when a cell divides. Hence this process
is responsible for complete reproduction of plant or animal.
4. Gene is a portion of DNA which controls all the characters of organisms. DNA encodes the
organism’s entire hereditary information and controls the growth and division of cells. In
organisms the genetic information is stored in DNA and is transcripted to RNA. This
information is then translated for the synthesis of proteins needed for the cellular structure
and function.

BIOLOGICAL IMPORTANCE OF RNA:

The function of RNA is different from those of DNA. There are three types of RNA molecules
in a cell which play important roles in protein synthesis. They are
1. Messenger RNA (m-RNA): This carries the message of DNA for specific protein synthesis
2. Ribosomal RNA(r-RNA): This provides the site for protein synthesis
3. Transfer RNA (t-RNA): These transfer amino acids to the site of protein synthesis. Each of
these is specific for a given amino acid.

SKCH COMP. PU COLLEGE 27 DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY

BIOLOGICAL FUNCTIONS OF NUCLEIC ACIDS:
1. DNA is the chemical basis of heredity (the reserve of genetic information).
2. DNA molecule is capable of self duplication during cell division and identical DNA strands
are transferred to daughter cells.
3. Another important function of nucleic acids is the protein synthesis in the cell.
4. DNA is responsible for maintaining the identity of different species of organisms over
millions of years.
5. DNA controls growth and cell division.

**********

SKCH COMP. PU COLLEGE 28 DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY