CHE 301: Homework 5

October 15, 2021

Yousef Alterkait
 I. Planck’s blackbody experiment and Planck’s quantum theory of radiation:
Max Planck proposed the "Blackbody radiation" theory in 1900, which assumed that cavity
radiation is created by an atomic oscillator in the cavity walls.
The Plank's Body experiment entails heating the interior surface of the body being studied and
measuring the dispersion of photons at various wavelengths with a good detector.
Planck was compelled to make an approximation that the Blackbody is analogous to a very small
hole inside a hollow objective, and the hole is a perfect absorber. Figure 1 below represents the
model for Cavity Radiation in a Blackbody's Cavity Walls.
The nature of the radiation that exits the cavity through the hole is solely determined by the
cavity's temperature.
Plank also proposed two principles:
1. An oscillator's energy can only be stated as a discrete quantity, which means it is
quantified as can be seen from the following formula:
𝐸𝑛 = 𝑛 ℎ 𝑓
2. A quantum oscillator emits or absorbs energy as it changes states, which is then
emitted or absorbed as a single quantum of radiation as can be seen in Figure 2
below.

Figure 1. Model for Cavity Radiation in a Blackbody's Cavity Walls

 Figure 2. Energy-level Diagram

II. Stefan Boltzmann law:

The Stephan-Boltzmann law states that the total radiant energy radiated from the surface of a
blackbody is proportional to the fourth power of its absolute temperature as can be seen from the
following formula:
𝐸 = σ𝑇 4
Therefore, a small rise in the surface temperature will result in a great increase in the amount of
radiant energy released.
This formula can be used as an indirect way to determine the temperature of the examined
surface by taking a remote measurement of total radiant energy emitted from the inner surface.
This Law applies to blackbodies as well as any other surfaces that could absorb heat radiation if
it were to hit them.

III. Planck’s Distribution law:

Represents and explains the spectral energy distribution of a blackbody's surface, where the
spectral emissive power of a blackbody for a specific wavelength is calculated as follows:

2𝜋ℎ𝐶12
𝐸𝑏 =
hC
λ5 (exp [ 1 ] − 1)
λKT

By integrating the above equation, we obtain the total emissive power of a blackbody as follows:
∞
𝐸𝑏 = ∫ 𝐸𝑏 𝑑λ
0

The wavelengths of low-frequency energy levels are close together, but those of high-frequency
radiation are shorter.
Plank also developed the Planck's distribution graph that depicts blackbody's spectrum rate
emission as a function of length and temperature.
As temperature rises, the biggest energy peak shift towards toward shorter wavelengths as can be
seen in Figure 3 below.

Figure 3. Planck's distribution graph

IV. Wien’s Displacement law:

Wilhelm Wien proposed the Wien's displacement law, which states that a perfect substance emits
and absorbs all possible light frequencies. Wien pictured a blackbody as an oven with a small
hole.
When radiation passes through the internal walls of the oven, it is absorbed. Radiation is
absorbed, and the chances of some of it escaping are limited virtually nil.
This law is represented by the following equation:
b
λ𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
T

This equation reveals that temperature and the maximum wavelength are inversely proportional where
an increase in temperature would result in shifts to shorter wavelengths and higher peaks.
The temperature of hot radiating objects, as well as any radiant object whose temperature is
substantially higher than its surroundings, may be calculated using Wien's displacement law.
 Figure 4. Blackbody’s Spectral Emittance vs. wavelength at different temperatures

V. Kirchhoff’s Radiation law:

Kirchhoff’s radiation law asserts that any object that is a good emitter should also be a good
absorbent, and that the coefficients of absorption and emission at a fixed temperature are equal.
At constant temperature, the coefficients of absorption is equal to the coefficient of emission
where:
𝛼λ = 𝜖 λ
Kirchhoff’s Radiation law is represented by the following energy balance equation:
𝑟λ + 𝛼λ + 𝜏λ = 1
For thermally opaque objects, the equation below is obtained by replacing absorptance for
emissivity:
1 = 𝑟λ + 𝜖λ

From the equation represented above, it is clear that emissivity and reflectivity are inversely
proportional.
Kirchhoff also stated that the composition of a body's surface influences how quickly it emits or
absorbs heat by radiation.
VI. Beer-Lambert’s law:

Beer-Lambert law is a hybrid of Beer's and Lambert's laws where the absorbance and
concentration are proportionate, according to Beer's law, whereas the absorbance and path length
are proportional, as stated by Lambert’s law.
When monochromatic radiation passes through a medium of certain thickness, the energy and
intensity of this light decreases exponentially as a function of the concentration and length of this
medium.
Absorbance of this radiation increases with concentration and is dependent on the optical path
the light takes. This is represented by the following equation:

𝐴 = 𝜀𝑙𝑐

Beer-Lambert Law is widely used to determine concentration of mixtures or mediums.

Figure 5. Beer Lambert Law experimental setup illustrating transmittance of Light

VII. Rayleigh-Jeans Distribution and the ultra-violet catastrophe:

The ultraviolet catastrophe, often known as the Rayleigh–catastrophe, is based on the concept
that an ideal black body at thermal equilibrium would produce more energy as the frequency of
radiation increased than that measured experimentally.
This law describes the variation of radiation intensity as function of wavelength as can be see in
the following equation:
2𝜋𝑐𝐾𝐵 𝑇
𝐼(𝜆, 𝑇) =
𝜆4
This law led to controversial viewpoints as its results coincided with those obtained
experimentally at long wavelengths, however, they varied substantially at shorter wavelengths.
The name ultraviolet catastrophe came from the debate that the intensity of radiation increases
infinitely as the wavelength approaches zero therefore, short wavelengths should dominate and
the energy emitted must drastically increase towards infinity as the wavelength approaches zero
in a black body spectrum; however, experimental results disagreed with this law where
wavelength didn’t follow this pattern as intensity increased drastically.

Figure 6. The Ultraviolet Catastrophe showing the deviation of Rayleigh–Jeans law from
experimental results at short wavelengths
Symbols:

𝑛 = quantum number

𝑓 = oscillator’s frequency

ℎ = Planck’s constant
E: radiant heat energy emitted from unit area per one second

Σ: Stefan-Boltzmann constant

T: temperature of the studied body

𝐸𝑏 : monochromatic or spectral emissive power

h: Planck’s constant

K: Boltzmann’s constant

λ : wavelength

λ𝑚𝑎𝑥 : wavelength of the maximum intensity

T: temperature

b: 2.9 × 10−3 𝑚𝐾 (constant)

𝑟λ : spectral reflectance

𝛼λ : spectral absorptance

𝜏λ : spectral transmittance

𝐼: 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦