Modern Physics

Introduction
The radiant energy emitted by a body solely on account of its temperature is
called thermal energy. All bodies above 0 K emit thermal radiation continuously. This
quality and quantity of this radiation depends on the temperature and properties of the
body. At room temperature, the wavelengths of the thermal radiation are primarily in the
infrared region and hence are not observed by eye. As the temperature of the body
increases, the body eventually begins to glow red. At sufficiently high temperatures, the
body appears to be white. Careful study shows that, as the temperature of a body
increases, the thermal radiation it emits consists of a continuous distribution of
wavelengths from the infrared, visible and ultraviolet portions of the spectrum. The
distribution of energy depends upon the temperature and nature of radiating surface of the
emitter.
Blackbody radiation
A perfect black body is one which absorbs completely radiation of all
wavelengths incident on it.
Since a perfect black body is a perfect absorber, it will also be a perfect radiator.
When a perfect blackbody is heated to a high temperature, it emits radiation of all
possible wavelengths. The radiation emitted by a blackbody is
called blackbody radiation.
According to Kirchhoff, the ratio of the emissive power
to the absorptive power of a body is a constant, depending only
on the temperature of the body and independent of its nature. If
a body absorbs all the radiation energy falling on it, then its
absorptive power is unity. Such body is called a blackbody.
Energy distribution of Blackbody radiation
In practice, an ideal blackbody is does not exist. A good
approximation of a blackbody can be realized in practice by
heating to any desired temperature. Considered a hollow enclosure C, with a very small
orifice O, its inner surface is coated with lampblack. When radiation is incident on the
inner blackened surface, it is partially absorbed and partly reflected. The reflected
component is incident at another point on the inner surface of C and is again partly
absorbed and partly reflected. This process continuous. At each reflection more than 98%
of the incident beam is absorbed. Thus the cavity may be taken to have unit absorptive
power so that it behaves like a
blackbody.
The inner walls of the heated
cavity also emit radiation, a part of
which can come out through the orifice.
This radiation obviously has the
characteristics of blackbody radiation.
Its spectrum can be analyzed by an infra
red spectrometer using a bolometer as a
detector. Thus, the emissive power of
the blackbody for different wavelengths
can be determined. Experimental data
for the distribution of energy in

Prepared by SHANKER RAO GATTU, (9949435575) Page 1

blackbody radiation at three temperatures curves gives the information regarding the
blackbody radiation.
1. The distribution of radiated energy is not uniform and varies with wavelength
and temperature.
2. It is seen that there are different curves for different temperatures.
3. For a particular temperature, the intensity of the radiation increases up to a
particular wavelength and then decreases with further increase in wavelength.
4. As the temperature of the body increases, the peak of the curve shifts towards
shorter wavelength.
Stefan’s law:
The power emitted by the blackbody in unit area is proportional to the fourth
power of the absolute temperature i.e.
E T 4  E   T 4
Now power P  eAT 4
P
Intensity of the radiation I   eT 4
A
For blackbody, the emissivity e = 1 exactly, then I  T 4
Where  Stefan’s constant = 5.6686  10-8 W/m2-K4 and T is absolute temperature.
Kirchhoff’s law:
The ratio emissive power e  to the absorptive power a  for radiation of a given
wavelength is the same for all bodies at a given temperature and it is equal to the
emissive power of a perfect blackbody at that temperature corresponding to same
wavelength.
e
 E
a
Wien’s Displacement law:
The maximum wavelength m emitted by blackbody radiation is inversely
proportional to its absolute temperature T of the body.
1
 m  or mT =constant = 2.898  10-3 m.K (Wien constant)
T
Wien also showed that the maximum energy of the peak emission is directly proportional
to the fifth power of absolute temperature, i.e.
E m  T 5  E m  KT 5
Where K is a constant. It is referred to as the fifth power law.
Wien’s law:
The energy per unit volume for wavelengths in the range  and   d is given
C2

by the relation U  d  C1 e d
5 T

Where C1 and C2 are constants. This is called Wien’s law of energy distribution in the
blackbody radiation spectrum.
Drawbacks of Wien’s law:
The Wien’s law is valid only for shorter wavelength region and high temperature
value of the source. It failed to explain the gradual decrease in the intensity for radiations
whose wavelengths are longer than the wavelengths m corresponding to the peak value.

Prepared by SHANKER RAO GATTU, (9949435575) Page 2

Rayleigh-Jeans law:
If imagine an enclosure, with perfectly reflecting walls, the electromagnetic
waves constituting the radiation inside it will suffer multiple reflections at its walls. Thus,
they will give rise to stationary waves of different wavelengths. The possible number of
different waves or possible number of different modes of vibration, within even a small
range of wavelength  to   d , will be sufficiently small if  is small and may be
assumed to be equal to f  d . Clearly, in a finite volume V, it will be proportional to V.
taking into account the physical dimensions of the quantities involved.
The energy per unit volume for wavelengths in the range  and   d is given
by the relation U  d  8kT4 d
This result is known as Rayleigh-Jeans formula. This relation agrees well with the
experimental results of longer wavelengths. However, it completely fails at shorter
wavelengths.
Drawbacks of Rayleigh-Jeans law (Ultra-Violet Catastrophe):
According to Rayleigh-Jeans formula, U  approaches infinity as   0 where as
the experimental result shows that U   0 as   0 . This serious disagreement between
theory and experiment i.e., the failure of Rayleigh-Jeans law at short wavelengths i.e.,
beyond the violet region is known as the Ultra-Violet Catastrophe. At longer
wavelengths, classical theory is in good agreement with the experimental data. At shorter
wavelengths, however, major disagreement exists between classical theory and
experiment. This disagreement is often called the Ultra-Violet Catostrophe.(this name is
somewhat of a misnomer, because the “catastrophe”-infinite energy-occurs as the
wavelength approaches zero, not ultraviolet wavelengths.)
Quantum theory of radiation:
In 1900, Max Planck developed a structural model for blackbody radiation that
leads to a theoretical equation for wavelength distribution that is in complete agreement
with experimental results at all wavelengths. Planck assumed that oscillators exist at the
surface of the blackbody, related to the charges within the molecules. The assumptions
are:
1. The blackbody is made up of a large number of oscillating particles. These
particles can vibrate in all possible frequencies. The frequency of radiation
from the body is the same as that of vibrating particles.
2. An oscillator can have a discrete set of energies which are integral multiples
of a finite quantum of energy E n  nh
Where n is a positive integer, called quantum number,  is the frequency of
the oscillator and h is Planck’s constant.
3. An oscillator may lose or gain energy by emitting or absorbing respectively a
radiation of frequency  whose value is given by   E / h , where E is the
difference in the value of the energies of the oscillator before and after the
emission or absorption had taken place.
Based on the above assumptions, Planck derived an equation which successfully
explained the entire spectrum of the blackbody radiation. It is given by,
 
8hc  1 
U  d  5 d ------------- (1)
  hkT 
 e  1
This is called Planck’s radiation law.

Prepared by SHANKER RAO GATTU, (9949435575) Page 3

 (i) Reduction of Planck’s law to Wien’s law for shorter wavelength:
c
For shorter wavelengths,   is large.

h

When  is large, e kT
is very large.
h

 kT
e >>> 1.
 hkT  h hc
  e 1  e kT  e kT
 
 
 
8hc  1 
Now Eq (1) becomes U  d  5 d
  hckT 
e 
C2

= C1 e d where C1  8hc and C2 = hc/k.
5 T

This equation is Wien’s law of radiation.

(ii) Reduction of Planck’s law to Rayleigh-Jeans law for larger wavelength:
For longer wavelengths,
c
  is small.

h
When  is small, will be very small.
kT
h

Expanding e kT as power series, we have,

h
h  1  h 
2
kT
e =1+ +   + -------
kT 2  kT 
h
 1
kT
h
 kT 
  e 1  h  hc
  kT kT
 
By substituting above Eq. in Eq (1) we get
 
8hc  1 
U  d  5   d
  hc 
 kT 
8kT
 U  d  4 d This equation is Rayleigh-Jeans law of Radiation.

Compton Effect:
When a monochromatic beam of X-rays of wavelength  is scattered by carbon,
then the scattered radiation consists of X-rays of two different wavelengths, one with a
wavelength equal to wavelength of incident X-rays and the other with a longer
wavelength. This is known as Compton Effect.

Prepared by SHANKER RAO GATTU, (9949435575) Page 4

Experimental observation and Compton shift:
Compton observed that the scattered X-
rays contain two wavelengths. One is the same
wavelength  as that of the incident ray and the
other is wavelength   which is always greater
than  .   is found vary with  the angle through
which the X-rays are being scattered. The
difference      , which indicates the
enhancement in the wavelength, is called
“Compton shift”. Compton made measurement by
replacing graphite with other materials and found
that   is independent of the target material, but
dependent only on the angle through which the
scattering occurs. It is the presence of the longer
wavelength component   which provides the explanation that X-rays behave as
photons. The scattering of a photon by an electron is called Compton scattering.
Explanation of Compton Effect:
The incident beam of X-rays is assumed to be consisting of a stream of photons.
Compton treated the incidence of a photon as equal to incidence of a particle of energy E
hc
given by E  Where, h is the Planck’s constant, c is the velocity of light

and
 is the wavelength of the incident X-rays.
If   is the wavelength of the scattered component at an angle  , then the energy of the
hc
photon in the scattered part of radiation is E  

The process looked upon as a collision between the incident photon of energy E
with the electron in the target. As a result, the photon is scattered at an angle  to the
incident direction, and its energy reduces from E to E  . In order to account for the
change in energy of the photon, the electron is assumed to recoil at angle  to the
incident direction of the photon.
Applying the laws of conservation of energy and conservation of momentum,
Compton derived an equation for the change in wavelength  known as Compton shift
of the X-rays, which is given by
        1  cos  
h
mo c
Where mo is the rest mass of the electron and
c is the velocity of light.
This equation is known as Compton’s equation for the Compton shift.
The quantity (h/moc) has the dimensions of length and is called Compton wavelength
whose value is 2.42  10 12 m .
Physical signification of Compton Effect:
In the Compton Effect, the Compton shift is explained on the basis that the X-ray
photons collide with electrons and during the collision, the energy exchange between the
two occurs as through it is a kind of particle-particle collision. Thus, it demonstrates the

Prepared by SHANKER RAO GATTU, (9949435575) Page 5

particle nature of X-rays which we know are electromagnetic waves or in other words, it
signifies the particle nature of waves in general.

Waves and Particles:

If a certain amount of quantity occupies a certain space then it becomes a particle.
The particle has mass. As it is occupying a certain space, its position can be identified.
When its position changes then it has velocity. Due to its mass and velocity, the particle
has momentum and energy. From all these items it is clear that the characteristic
parameters of a particle are mass, velocity momentum and energy.
A wave is nothing but spreading of disturbance in a medium. Thus the
characteristics of waves are amplitude, time period, frequency, wavelength, phase and
intensity.
According to quantum theory, light energy is radiated in the form of quanta or
photons which posses’ corpuscular property like mass (hυ/c2), velocity (hυ/mc) and
momentum (hυ/c). But the phenomenon like interference, diffraction and polarization
could not be explained on the basis of quantum theory. This phenomenon was explained
on the basis of wave theory. Hence light exhibits dual nature. That is both particle as well
as wave nature. But the radiation cannot exhibit both wave and particle natures
simultaneously.
de Broglie proposed that “Nature loves symmetry”. So, matter possess wave as
well as particle characteristics just like radiation and the particles like electrons, photons,
neutrons etc possess dual nature.

DE BROGLIE WAVE:
A moving particle associated with a wave is known as de Broglie wave.
h h
The wave length of matter wave is λ = =
mv p
Where m is mass of material particle
v is velocity, p is momentum
h is Planck’s constant
DE BROGLIE WAVE LENGTH:
Considering the planks theory of radiation. The energy of photon is given by
hc
E = hυ = ----------- (1)

According to Einstein’s mass energy relation E = mc2 --------- (2)
From eqs (1) and (2)
hc
mc2 =

h
 mc =


h h
There fore λ= =
mc p

Prepared by SHANKER RAO GATTU, (9949435575) Page 6

 1 m2v2
mv2
(1)If E is the K.E of the particle then E = =
2 2m
 m2v2 = 2mE
 p2 = 2mE
 p = 2mE
h h
 de Broglie wave length λ= =
p 2mE
(2)When the charged particle carrying a charge ‘q’ is accelerated by a potential
difference V volts. Then K.E is Vq
i.e. E = Vq
h h
 de Broglie wave length λ= =
p 2mVq

(3)When a material particle is in thermal equilibrium at a temperature T, then

3
Average energy E = kT
2
h h
Then de Broglie wave length λ = =
p 3
2m kT
2

 h
λ =
3mkT
de Broglie wavelength associated with electrons:
Let us consider the case of an electron of rest mass mo and charge ‘e’ which is
accelerated by a potential V volt from the rest.
h
We know that λ =
2mE
In the case of electrons m = mo, E = eV
h 6.625  10 34
 λ = =
31 19
= 12.26 Ao
2mo eV 2  9.1  10  1.6  10  V V

PROPERTIES OF MATTER WAVES:

(1) Matter waves are not electromagnetic waves.
(2) The velocity of the matter wave is not constant.
(3) If the velocity of the particle is smaller, the wavelength associated with it is
greater.
(4) If the mass of the particle is lighter, the wave length associated with it is greater
(5) The wavelength of the matter wave is depends on the velocity of the material
particle.
(6) The wave and particle aspects of moving bodies can never appear together in the
same experiment.
(7) The wave nature of matter introduces an uncertainty in the location of the position
of the particle.

Prepared by SHANKER RAO GATTU, (9949435575) Page 7

Introduction to wave velocity:
Consider a simple harmonic wave originating at the origin O and travelling with a
velocity v along the X-direction. At t=0, let the particle at the origin O be disturbed. It
executes simple harmonic motion. Its displacement from the mean position at any instant
of time t is given by the equation.
y  A sin t ---------------------- (1)
Where A is the amplitude of vibration and  is the angular frequency.
Consider a particle of the medium at the point P at a distance x from O. as the wave
travels with a constant speed in a given medium, the time taken by disturbance to reach P

is x/v. Therefore the displacement of the particle P at a time t will be the same as that of
the particle at O at a time (t-x/v) and it is give by
 x
y  A sin   t   ----------------------- (2)
 v
This equation represents the displacement of the particle at P at time t. Now
 x  x 
y  A sin   t    A sin  t  
 v  v 
 y  A sin t  kx ----------------------------- (3)

Where k  is called the propagation constant or the wave number.
v
The term t  kx gives the phase of the particle and it will be same for all uniphase
points in a periodic wave.
d
t  kx  0
dt
 dx 
   k   0
 dt 
dx 
  ------------- (4)
dt k
A point marked on a wave can be regarded as representing a particular phase for the wave
at that point. The velocity with which such a point would propagate is known as phase
velocity.
In this case x is the distance travelled and dx/dt is known as phase velocity.

 Phase velocity v p  ------------------ (5)
k

Prepared by SHANKER RAO GATTU, (9949435575) Page 8

Equation for a travelling wave:
Consider the equation y  A sin t  kx
Differentiating the above equation twice with respect to t, we get
d2y
2
   2 A sin t  kx
dt
d2y
 2
   2 y --------------------- (6)
dt
Similarly, differentiating twice with respect to x, we get
d2y
2
  k 2 A sin t  kx
dx
2
d y 2 y 
 2
  k y   2 --------------------- (7)
2
k 
dx v v
Comparing Eqs, (6) and (7), we have
d2y 1 d2y
 2  2  ---------------------------- (8)
dx 2 v  dt 
This is the equation for progressive wave.
Wave velocity (or) phase velocity:
For a wave with no damping, the equation for displacement is given by
y  A sin t  kx
Where, y is displacement along Y-coordinate at the instant t,  is the angular frequency,
k is the propagation constant and x is the displacement along the X-coordinate at the
instant t.
dx 
The phase velocity for the wave is vp = =
dt k
When a monochromatic wave that is a wave of single frequency and wave length
travel through a medium, its velocity of advancement in the medium is called as wave
velocity or phase velocity.
Particle velocity:
Assume that a particle like electron can be described by relation
y  A sin t  kx
It represents a pure sine wave that has no beginning and no end. It is of infinite extent and
completely non localized. Hence, a mono frequency wave cannot represent a particle
which is an entity confined to a very small volume. It implies that the de-Broglie waves
are not harmonic waves but could be combination of several waves. It is known that
super position of several waves having slightly different frequencies gives rise to a wave
packet. Such a wave packet possesses both wave and particle properties.

Prepared by SHANKER RAO GATTU, (9949435575) Page 9

 The velocity with which the resultant envelop of the group of waves travels is called
group velocity v g and is equal to particle velocity v. The velocity of the individual waves
forming the wave packet is the phase velocity v p .
 d
vp  , vg  and v  v g
k dk
Expression for group velocity:
Consider pulses rather than monochromatic wave. The pulse consists of a number
of waves slightly differing in frequency from one to another. The superposition of such
waves is known as wave group or wave packet. When such a group travels in the
medium, the phase velocities of different components are different. However, the
observed velocity is the velocity of the group advances is group velocity.
Let us consider two travelling waves of same amplitude, but of slightly different
wavelengths and frequencies the two waves can be represented by the following two
equations.
y1  A sin t  kx ------------------------------------------- (1)
y2  A sin     t  k  k x -------------------------- (2)
Where  and k are the differences in angular velocity and wave number and are
assumed to be small.
The resultant displacement y due to the superposition of two waves is given by
y  y1  y 2
 y  A sin t  kx  A sin     t  k  k x
    k    2     2k  k  
 2 A cos  t    x  sin  t    x
 2   2    2   2  
Since  and k are small
2    2 and 2k  k  2k
    k  
 y  2 A cos  t    x  sin t  kx --------------------- (3)
 2   2  
By comparing Eq (1) and (3) the amplitude becomes
    k  
= 2 A cos  t    x  ---------------------------------- (4)
 2   2  
    k  
= 2 A cos  t    x
 2     
   x 
= 2 A cos   t  
 2  v g 
 d
Where v g   --------------------------------- (5)
k dk
Is called the group velocity.
Which is not a constant, but varies as a wave. The velocity with which the variation in
amplitude is transmitted in the resultant wave is the group velocity

Prepared by SHANKER RAO GATTU, (9949435575) Page 10

Relation between Group velocity and Phase velocity:
Consider a non relativistic particle of mass m having phase velocity v p and group
velocity v g .  is the de-Broglie wavelength,  be the frequency of the wave, then

Wave velocity v p  and
k
d
group velocity v g  -------------------- (1)
dk
Now   v p k  d  dv p k  v p dk
d dv p
 k  v p ------------- (2)
dk dk
By substituting Eq (1) in Eq (2) we get
dv p
vg  k  vp
dk
dv p d
 vg  v p  k . -------------- (3)
d dk
2 d 2
Since k  hence  2
 dk k
dv p
Now Eq (3) becomes v g  v p   ------------ (4)
d
This is the relation between group velocity and wave velocity.

This is the relation between group velocity and particle velocity:

 is the angular velocity and k is the propagation constant then
  2  2
E
E  h 
h
2
By differentiating the above Eq. we get d  dE ----------- (1)
h
2 p
Now propagation constant k   2
 h
2
 dk  dp ----------- (2)
h
By dividing Eq.(1) with (2) we get
d dE
 ----------- (3)
dk dp
p2
We know E  where p is the momentum of the particle.
2m
dE 2 p p
  
dp 2m m
But p = mv where v is the velocity of the particle.
d mv
   v ( particle ) ----------- (4)
dk m

Prepared by SHANKER RAO GATTU, (9949435575) Page 11

 d
We know group velocity v g  ---------- (5)
dk
From Eq (4) and (5)
v g  v particle
 The de Broglie wave group associated with a particle travels with a velocity equal to
the velocity of the particle itself.

Prepared by SHANKER RAO GATTU, (9949435575) Page 12