Optical Communications

and Networking
ELG4178 A
Prof. Sawsan Abdul-Majid, P. Eng. SMIEEE
Faculty of Engineering
University of Ottawa
Winter 2021
www.ancwt.ca
Geometrical optics
description of
waveguides
Different Light Wave Theories
➢ Light behaviour is explained used three theories
➢Quantum Theory – Light consists of small particles (photons). This
theory better explains light detection and generation processes.

➢Wave Theory – Light travels as a transverse electromagnetic( EM)

wave.

➢Ray Theory – Light travels along a straight line and obeys laws of
geometrical optics – understand light propagation in slab waveguide
and optical fibres

❑ Electromagnetic wave theory, is useful to understand propagation in

optical fibres
❑ Quantum theory is useful to learn photo detection and emission
phenomena
 Wave Theory of Light
• Electromagnetic light signal has electric and magnetic fields
orthogonal to each other.

• The frequency of this EM wave is in the order of THz. Therefore, it is

convenient to measure it in terms of wavelength.

• where, c - speed of light 2.998x108 m/s in air,

• f - frequency and λ- wavelength
• For λ = 1550 nm, f =193.5 THz
c = f
Quantum Theory of Light
Light consists of discrete units called photons. Eg is The energy in a
photon
Eg = hf
h= 6.6256 X10(-34) J.s is the Planck’s constant
f is the frequency. The frequency f , wavelength λ, and speed of light c
are related by

c = f 1.24
Eg = eV
 ( m)
Note : 1eV = 1.602176565e-19 J = 1.602176565⋅10-19 J
 Examples
• Ex1: Find the energy of a photon travelling with 200 THz frequency

1/19/2021
• Ex2: Prove that

Sawsan Abdul-majid CEG3155

1.24
Eg = eV
 ( m)

6
 Geometrical optics Description
of waveguides
Geometrical optics, or ray optics, describes light propagation in
terms of "rays".
The "ray" in geometric optics is an abstraction, to approximately
model how light will propagate.
Light rays are defined to propagate in a linear path as they
travel in a homogeneous medium.
Ray bend (and may split in two) at the interface between two
dissimilar media, may curve in a medium where the refractive
index changes, and may be absorbed and reflected.
Geometrical optics provides rules, which may depend on the
color (wavelength) of the ray, for propagating these rays through
an optical system.
Principles of Dielectric waveguides
According to geometrical optics, light is described by rays that interact with
surfaces and objects according to the following geometrical rules;

1.Propagation in straight lines

2.Law of reflection
3.Law of refraction

Refractive index(n)

Martials are characterised from an optics point of view by the refractive index
(n), given by the ratio of the speed of light in free space(C) to the speed of light
in the material( v)

• n = C/ V , where n ≥1
• n = 1 in vacuum
• Where C =2.998x108 m/s
Changing Refractive Index
The refractive index n is not constant. It is a function of the
wavelength of light, n = n(λ), see table here.
Therefore, different wavelengths will travel at different velocity.
The wavelength dependency of n is given by an empirical formula,
Sellmeier equations; Refractive index is a nonlinear function of
wavelength. The slope of this graph is related to group refractive
index( ng)
 Law of Reflection( Snell’ s law)
• Ө1 is the angle of incidence
• Ө2 is reflection angle
• n1 is always larger than n2
when the sine's of the angles in the different media are
in the same proportion as the propagation velocities,
the time to get from P to Q is minimized( least time).
Ө1 ,Ө2 , n1 and n2, accordingly v1and v2
are the main parameters, that should be considered
n1>n2
Snell's law : formula describes the relationship between the angles of
incidence and refraction, when referring to light or other waves passing
through a boundary between two different isotropic media, such as water,
glass and air.
Sine's of the angles of incidence and refraction is equivalent to the ratio of
phase velocities in the two media, or equivalent to the reciprocal of the ratio
of the indices of refraction:
(n1sin θ1=n2sin θ2) , Snell’s Law
 Total Internal Reflection
According to the (total internal reflection(TIR ) when the angle of
incidence exceeds a critical value, light cannot get out of the glass;
instead, the light bounces back in.
When this principle is applied to the construction of the fiber-optic
strand, it is possible to transmit information down fiber lines in the
form of light pulses
 Total Internal Reflection

n core is the refractive index of the core

n cladding is the refractive index of the cladding
N core> N cladding
NA ( Numerical Aperture)describes the light gathering
capability of fiber.
There is imaginary cone of acceptance with an angle, σ
determined by the critical angle . This is related to a parameter
called numerical aperture (NA) of a fiber .
Total internal reflection
• (n = c / v)
Equations
• C is velocity of light in vacuum
• V is the velocity of light in a specific medium
(n1sin θ1=n2sin θ2) , Snell’s Law
sin Фc = n2 / n1
(Фc = sin-¹ (n2/n1))
For optical fiber, refractive indices are :
n1= refractive index of the core n1 n2
n2= refractive index of the cladding

(n1 > n2)

Numerical Aperture( NA)
NA describes the light gathering capability of fiber .
There is imaginary cone of acceptance with an angle, determined by the critical
angle . This is related to a parameter called numerical aperture

n core is the refractive index of the core

n cladding is the refractive index of the cladding
n core> n cladding
 Total Internal Reflection
Step index fiber

There is imaginary cone of acceptance with an angle,

determined by the critical angle . This is related to a parameter
called numerical aperture (NA) of a fiber .

n core is the refractive index of the core

n cladding is the refractive index of the cladding
n core> n cladding
 Slab Waveguides
The slab waveguide consists of three layers of materials with
different dielectric constants, extending infinitely in the
directions parallel to their interfaces.

Light may be confined in the middle layer by total internal

reflection. This occurs only if the dielectric index of the middle
layer is larger than that of the surrounding layers.
Guided modes of a slab waveguide can not be excited by light
incident from the top or bottom interfaces.
Light must be injected with a lens from the side into the middle
layer. Alternatively a coupling element may be used to couple light
 Two-dimensional
waveguides
• Strip waveguides : strip of the layer confined between cladding layers. The
simplest case is a rectangular waveguide, which is formed when the guiding
layer of the slab waveguide is restricted in both transverse directions rather
than just one. Rectangular waveguides are used in integrated optical circuits,
and in laser diodes. Used as the basis of such optical components as Mach-
Zehnder interferometers and wavelength division multiplexers.
• The cavities of laser diodes are frequently constructed as rectangular optical
waveguides. Optical waveguides with rectangular geometry are produced by
a variety of means, usually by a planar process.
• Rib waveguides is a waveguide in which the guiding layer basically consists
of the slab with a strip (or several strips) superimposed onto it.
• Rib waveguides also provide confinement of the wave in two dimensions.
 Optical path length
Optical path length (OPL) or optical distance is the product of
the geometric length of the path light follows through the system,
and the index of refraction of the medium through which it
propagates.
OPL= n.d [meters]
A difference in optical path length between two paths is often
called the optical path difference (OPD).
Optical path length :
Determines the phase of the light and governs interference and
diffraction of light as it propagates, if the media is inhomogeneous,
i.e
n = f ( x, y, z)
Then OPL is given by:
OPL= ∫ns .ds
Plane Waves

• Most Light waves are plane waves

• Plane wave is a constant-frequency wave whose wave fronts
(surfaces of constant phase) are infinite parallel planes of constant
peak-to-peak amplitude normal to the phase velocity vector
• The electric field vector of a plane wave may be arbitrarily divided
into two perpendicular components labeled x and y (with z indicating
the direction of travel).
Field distributions in plane E&M waves

Electric and magnetic fields

are orthogonal to each other
and to the direction of
propagation Z
 FIBER OPTICS PRINCEPLES
• Total internal reflection is the principle guides the operation of Optical
fiber.

• Ө ,ӨCritical , n1 and n2 are the main parameters, that should be

considered.
• Where Ө is the angle of incidence
• Ө Critical is the critical angle of incidence
• n1 is the refractive index of the region 1, the upper region.
• n2 is the refractive index of the region 2, the lower region.
• Assuming that n1 is always larger than n2

• The internal reflection will accrue when Ө is larger than ӨCritical .