LECTURE NOTES

ON

EC 351
FIBER OPTIC COMMUNICATION (FOC)

L-2: RAY OPTICS AND WAVE OPTICS

Dr. RAJESH KUMAR LAL

ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND
COMMUNICATION
BIT, MESRA,RANCHI
 OPTICAL FIBER
OPTICAL FIBER: A dielectric cylindrical structure, which guides the optical signal
along its length by the principle of total internal reflection.
A typical optical fiber structure is shown in figure below

A. Different layers in a typical optical fiber:

1. Core : Silica or silicate(n1 )
2. Cladding: Glass (n2) where n2 < n1
3. Buffer : Elastic, abrasion-resistant material
4. Jacket : Plastic Layer
B. Purpose of different layers of optical fiber:
1. Core : Innermost layer, Optical signal travel through core by total internal reflection
2. Cladding: Reduces the scattering loss due to dielectric contamination , Provide
mechanical strength, Reduces surface contamination absorption
3. Buffer : Adds further strength, mechanically isolate/buffer the fiber from small
geometrical irregularities, distortions or roughness of adjacent surfaces
4. Jacket : Covering layer, distortions or roughness of adjacent surfaces and surroundings
 Mode
 A mode is transverse Electromagnetic Field Distribution propagation along the fiber,
(repeated along fiber axis at equal interval), without any change in field distribution
except for a change in phase.
Mathematically
 ( x, y, z , t )   ( x, y )e   z t )
BASIC LAWS

PARTIAL REFLECTION TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION (TIR)

& REFRACTION
Clad
(n2)
Core
 
(n1)

Clad
(n2)
Wave propagation along the fiber
 RAY OPTICS AND WAVE OPTICS REPRESENTATION
THE NATURE OF LIGHT
 Particle Nature of Light
 Believes that light consisted of a stream of minute energy particles
 By his experiment of photoelectric effect Einstein proved particle nature
of light. Believes light travel in a straight line
 Adequate to explain long scale optical effect (L >> ) such as
• Reflection and Refraction
 But fail to explain fine scale phenomena (L ~ )
 Wave Nature of Light
 Thomas Young through the double-slit experimentdemonstrated that light
having a wave nature
 His experiment known today as Young's light-interference experiment
 With wave nature, Diffraction was explained by Fresnal in 1815
 Maxwell in 1864 theorized that light wave must be Electromagnetic
in nature
 Polarization effects indicate that light waves are transverse
There are two method of studying the propagation of
characteristics of Light in a optical fiber
Ray Theory or Geometrical optics or Ray tracing approach (a >> )
Mode theory or Electromagnetic Approach (a ~ )
 RAY THEORY
RAY THEORY/GEOMETRICAL OPTICS/RAY TRACING APPROACH
 When the wavelength of the light is much smaller than the
object/opening which it encounter (small wavelength limit), the
wave fronts [a wavefront is the locus of the point having the same
phase] appear as straight lines to the opening.
 In this case, the light can be represented as plane wave and since
with any plane wave one can associate a light ray that is
perpendicular to the wave front of the wave.
This approach of optics is referred to as ray or geometrical optics.

Light
Ray r

i r
i

WAVEFRONT . REFLECTION . REFRACTION

 RAY THEORY con…
 In Ray Tracing approach ray tracing of the path of light wave
• in a medium ,
• At interfaces of two different medium
• its deviated path etc.
are studied to understand propagation of light in optical fiber
 The large scale optical effects such as Reflection, Refraction and Total Internal
Reflection can be analyzed by simple Geometrical process of RAY TRACING.
 The concept of light rays is very useful because it shows the energy flow in light wave
 This method provides a good approximation to the light acceptance and guiding
properties of optical fibers for small wavelength limit.
 It gives a more direct physical interpretation of the light propagation characteristics in
an optical fiber
 MODE THEORY
MODE THEORY OR ELECTROMAGNETIC APPROACH (a ~ )
 A mode is transverse Electromagnetic Field Distribution propagation along the fiber,
(repeated along fiber axis at equal interval), without any change in field distribution
except for a change in phase.
Mathematically

 ( x, y, z , t )   ( x, y )e   z t )

 Model analysis or electromagnetic approach provides energy and field distribution in

the guided modes, radiative mode and leaky mode.
 RAY THEORY TRANSMISSION
BASIC LAWS
Refractive index (n)
 The refractive index (or index of refraction) of a medium is a measure of how much
the speed of light is reduced inside the medium
 The refractive index n of a medium is defined as the ratio of the velocity c of light in
free space to the velocity of light v in the medium itself

Where
c = 3×108 meters per second and n having the typical value 1.00 for air, 1.33 for water,
1.5 for glass and 2.42 for diamond

Higher the index of the material, the more the light is slowed down inside the medium
i. When light travels from one medium to another, the speed changes, as does
experienced by the different wavelength. The index of refraction can also be
stated in terms of wavelength
n = / m =c / v
ii. The frequency () of the light will be constant and the relation between c,  and m
can be given by
c =  m
 MODE THEORY con….
 In mathematical expression of a wave  is the z component of the wave propagation
constant k (=2/)
  is the main parameter of interest in describing fiber modes.
 For light wave propagation in optical fiber
• It can assume only discrete values, which can determined from the least
requirements to which the mode field must satisfy.
• These requirements are Maxwell’s equation and Boundary condition for electric and
magnetic field at core-clad interface
 Only finite no of modes which satisfy these conditions can travel through optical fiber.
(Guided mode)
 Other modes mostly radiate out from core and may travel in clad for some distance.
(Radiative mode) before fully radiated from fiber.
 There exist some filed distribution in optical fiber which contains energy but not having
ability to provide any useful power transfer effectively and efficiently to the other end of
fiber w.r.t time such as skew rays. ( leaky mode)
 RAY THEORY Vs MODE THEORY
RAY THEORY
 R1: Ray theory provides a good approximation to the light acceptance and guiding
properties of optical fiber for small wavelength limit
 R2: Ray theory is accurate and extremely valuable in multimode fiber.
 R3: Ray approach compared to modal analysis gives a more direct physical interpretation
of the light propagation characteristics in a fiber
MODE THEORY
 M1: Analysis of single mode or few mode fibers must be dealt-with by using mode theory
 M2: Problem involving coherence or interference phenomena must be solved with an
electromagnetic approach
 M3: Modal analysis is necessary when a knowledge of the field distribution of individual
modes is required
 M4: Modal approach is necessary when analyzing excitation of an individual modes or
when analyzing the coupling of power between modes at waveguide interface
 MACROBEND LOSSES
 These are observed when a fiber bend's radius of curvature is large compared to ‘a’.

 During installation, if fibers are bent too sharply, macroscopic bend losses will occur.

 These bends become a great source of loss when the radius of curvature < several cm

 Light propagating at the inner side of the bend travels a shorter distance than that on the
outer side.

 To maintain the phase of the light wave, the mode phase velocity must increase.

 When the fiber bend is less than some critical radius of curvature R, the mode phase
velocity must increase to a speed greater than the speed of light.

 However, it is impossible to exceed the speed of light.

 This condition causes some of the light within
the fiber to be converted to high-order modes.
 These high-order modes are then lost or radiated
out of the fiber.
 RAY THEORY Vs WAVE THEORY con…
Discrepancy between ray optics and wave optics
 Although a simple ray picture appear to allow rays at all angle greater than the critical
angle to propagate in a fiber but the allowable quantized propagation angle results
when the phase condition for standing waves is introduced into the ray picture.
 When an optical fiber is uniformly bent with a constant radius of curvature, the wave
optics correctly predicts that every mode of the curved fiber experiences some
radiation loss where as ray optics, on the other hand, erroneously predicts that some
ray congruences can undergo total internal reflection at the curve and consequently
remain in guide without loss.

So in some case discrepancy between ray optics and wave optics exists so right
judgment of which theory is suitable for such case is necessary
Ray theory is best for ray tracing and wave theory is best for energy and power of the
mode analysis
 BASIC LAWS
REFRACTION
The change in speed that occurs when light passes from one medium to another is
responsible for the bending of light, or Refraction, that takes place at an interface.

SNELL'S LAW :
 If light is travelling from medium 1 into medium 2, and angles are measured from the
normal to the interface, the angle of transmission of the light into the second medium is
related to the angle of incidence by Snell's law

n1 sin 1  n2 sin 2 sin 1 sin i n2

or  
sin 2 sin r n1
 When light crosses an interface into a medium with a higher index of refraction, the
light bends towards the normal.
 Conversely, light traveling across an interface from higher n to lower n will bend away
from the normal.
 BASIC LAWS

PARTIALREFLECTION TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION (TIR)

CRITICAL ANGLE ( < 900 ) [ c ]
 Light traveling across an interface from higher n to lower n will bend away from the
normal So R (angle of refraction) > I (angle of incidence) since n1 > n2
The Critical angle is the incident angle, ( I = c < 900 ) for which light travelling from a
medium with higher n to a medium with lower n will be refracted at 90° (i. e. parallel
to the interface between dielectrics).
TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION
Any ray incident grater than the critical angle will reflect back to the incident material,
This phenomena is known as Total Internal Reflection (TIR)
The critical angle is the minimum incident angle for which TIR take place.
 Critical angle (c ) is the minimum incident angle (min) for at can be found from Snell's
law by putting in an angle of 90° for the angle of the refracted ray
sin C n2 sin c n  n2 
   2  n 2  n1 sin c  min  C  sin 1  
sin 900 n1 1 n1  1
n
 TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION
 In case of TIR no light escape from denser medium but it is a ideal case,
 practically 0.01 % optical power escape through the interface.
 This can be explained by wave theory
 In addition when the light is totally internally reflected a phase change  occurs in
the totally reflected wave
 This phase change depends on the angle 1 where 1 = /2 -  according to the
relation
1
 r

Total Internal Reflection

  n 2 cos 2 1  1   n n 2 cos 2 1  1
tan  N  and tan  P  
 2  n sin 1  2  n sin 1

Here N and N are the phase shifts of the electric field wave components normal and
parallel to the phase of incident respectively and n = n1/n2
 GOOSE HAENCHEN SHIFT
VIRTUAL REFLECTING PLANE
 There is a phase change incurred with the total internal
reflection of a light beam on a planer dielectric interface
 Careful examine shows that the reflected beam is shifted 1 2
laterally from the trajectory predicted by simple ray
theory analysis d
 This lateral displacement is known as Goose Haenchen
Lateral Shift
Shift after its first observers.
GOOSE HAENCHEN SHIFT

 The geometrical reflections appear to occur at a virtual reflecting plane which is

parallel to the dielectric interface in the lower index material as shown in figure
 Utilizing wave theory it is possible to determine this lateral shift although it is very
small (is d= 0.06 to 0.10 m for the silvered glass interface at a wavelength of 1.55 m)
 However it is difficult to observe but this concept provides an important insight into
the guidance mechanism of dielectric optical waveguides.
 ACCEPTANCE ANGLE AND ACCEPTANCE CONE

Radiative
mode

Acceptance
cone

 Since only the rays (Ar) with an angle to the normal grater than critical angle c at
the core-clad interface are transmitted by the total internal reflection in fiber core
 It is clear that not all rays (e.g. Br ) that entering the fiber core will continue to be
propagated down its length
 Figure shows the condition for propagation through optical fiber
 Let a Maridional Rays Ar incident at the core-clad interface at the critical angle c
within the fiber core
 It can be observed that this ray enters the fiber core at an angle a (as Ray Ai) to the
fiber axis
 So in other word, the ray incident with an angle a (will reach to fiber core clad
interface with angle c) and experience TIR so guided in optical fiber.
Now if I > a (than angle of refraction will be more at air-core interface)
and i < c
 so ray will be refracted and will not trapped in core (e.g. ray B r) and will be lost by
radiation
 ACCEPTANCE ANGLE
It is the maximum angle to the axis at which light entered in the fiber with condition to
propagate by TIR
Ray entering to fiber with angle grater than acceptance angle will not propagate in fiber

ACCEPTANCE CONE
For rays to be transmitted by TIR within fiber core they must be incident on fiber core
within an acceptance cone defined by the conical half angle equal to acceptance
angle(a)
FORMULATION
Using snall's law, The minimum angle that support total internal reflection for the
maridional ray (at core-clad boundary) is given by  n 
min  C  sin 1  2 
 n1 
The maximum entrance angle (i. e. acceptance angle ), at air-core interface, for a ray to
propagate in optical fiber is n 0 sin  a  n1 sin C where c    C
2

Radiative
mode

Acceptance c
cone
n 0 sin  0,max  n1 sin C  n 0 sin  a
Radiative
 
 n1 sin   C  mode
2  Acceptance
 n1 cos  C  cone

 n1 1  sin 2  C 
2
n 
 n1 1  2  n 
 n1  Since min  C  sin 1  2 
 n1 
sin a  n12  n2 2 Since n 0  1

n1 sin c  n12  n2 2
NUMERICAL APERTURE
 It is a parameter of optical fiber that is used to describe the light gathering capacity of
optical fiber
 It is a dimension less quantity and having value always less than 1
 It is useful for calculating source to fiber coupling efficiency
 N. A. is typically ranges from 0.14 – 0.50
N . A.  n 0 sin 0,max  n12  n2 2
  n1  n2   n1  n2 
 2n1  n1  
 n1 2
 = relative refractive index difference
RELATIVE REFRACTIVE INDEX DIFFERENCE
Numerical Aperture may also given in terms of  , relative refractive index difference
Between core and cladding and it is defined as
n12  n2 2 n1  n2
   For  << 1
2n12 n1

INDEX DIFFERENCE
Parameter n= n1 - n2 is referred as index difference and ( n/ n1) as fractional index
difference.

A typical value of  ,relative refractive index difference is ~ 0.01 – 0.3

 LIGHT PROPAGATION IN OPTICAL FIBER

Clad (n2)
  Core (n1)
Fiber axis
 
Clad (n2)

 The transmission of a light ray in an optical fiber is via a series of total internal
reflection at the interface of core and cladding.
 The ray has an angle of incidence angle  at the interface which is grater than
the critical angle, so total internal reflection takes place and light is reflected
at the same angle to the normal
 MARIDIONAL RAYS

 These rays are confined to the maridional plane (plane that contains the fiber
axis) of the optical fiber
 Thus these ray always passes through the fiber axis between every two TIR (for
bounded mode)
 This type of rays lies in a single plane so its path is easy to track as it travel along
the fiber
 These rays are generally used for illustration of the fundamental transmission
properties of optical fiber.
 The examination of maridional rays is sufficient for obtaining the general picture
of the ray propagation in optical fiber
 Maridional Rays are generally bounded modes
 Modes confined in clad can also be considered as Maridional Rays
 SKEW RAYS

 These rays are not confined in a single plane

but instead tend to follow a helical type path
along the fiber.
 These rays never pass through the fiber axis.
 Although skew rays constitute a major portion
of the total no of guided rays however their
analysis is not necessary to obtain the general
picture of the ray propagation in optical fiber
 However the inclusion of the skew ray in analysis of guided mode will change such
expression as the light gathering ability and power losses of light travelling along a
waveguide
 It is not easy to visualize the skew ray path in two dimension
 Many of the skew rays that ray optics predict to be trapped in the fiber are actually
leaky mode
 MODES OF OPTICAL FIBER
 Propagation of light along the optical fiber can be described in term of a set of
guided Electromagnetic Waves called “MODES”

 A mode is transverse Electromagnetic Field Distribution, repeated along fiber

axis at equal interval, which propagate along the fiber, without any change in
field distribution except for a change in phase.
 ( x, y, z , t )   ( x, y )e   z t )

There are mainly three types of modes in optical fiber

1. Bound or trapped or guided mode
2. Radiative mode
3. Leaky mode
 1. BOUND OR TRAPPED OR GUIDED MODE

 Only those electromagnetic field distribution which satisfy the homogeneous wave
equation in fiber and boundary condition at core clad-interface are allowed to
propagate in optical fiber and are known as Guided Mode .
 These Modes are strictly confined within fiber-core so these modes are known as
“Bound or Trapped Mode”.
 Among large number of modes only finite number of modes are allowed to
propagate along fiber axis through TIR
 A guided mode is essentially based on the upper and lower bounds that the
boundary conditions for solution of Maxwell’s equations imposed on the propagation
factor .
 A mode remain guided as long as  satisfy the condition
where n2 k    n1 k
n1 and n2 are the refractive indices of core and cladding respectively and k= 2/
 2. RADIATIVE MODE

 Solution of Maxwell’s equation shows that in addition to supporting the finite

number of guided modes, the optical fiber waveguide has an infinite number of
“ Radiative Modes ”.
 These modes are trapped & guided in clad of the fiber and radiate out after travelling
some distance along the clad. So, these modes are also known as “Cladding Mode”.
 These modes still have solution of some boundary value problem satisfied at clad
boundary near surrounding.
 A boundary between the true guided modes and the radiative mode is defined by the
cutoff condition given by

  n2 k   2  k 20 n 2 2
 As soon as  becomes smaller than n2 k, power leaks out of the core into the cladding
region radiative modes can carry sufficient amount of power in short fiber
 Most of these modes disappear after a few centimeter but a few have sufficiently low
losses to persist in fiber lengths of kilometers
 RADIATIVE MODE con…
 As these modes propagate along the fiber, mode coupling occur between the cladding
mode and higher order guided modes.
 This coupling occurs because the electric field of the guided mode are not completely
confined in core but extend partially into cladding, likewise for the cladding modes.
 A diffusion of power, back and forth, between core and cladding modes thus occurs;
This gradually results in a loss of power from the core modes.
 In practice, the cladding modes will be suppressed by radiating them out of the core
using a lossy fiber. So radiative mode scattered out after some distance because of
roughness on the cladding surface.
3. LEAKY MODE
 In addition to bounded and radiative modes, a third category of modes called leaky
mode is present in optical fiber These modes are partially confined to the core region,
and attenuated by continuously radiating their power out of the core as they propagate
along the fiber
 The power from these mode radiate out of the wave guide results from a quantum
mechanical phenomena known as “tunneling effect”. (Skew Rays)
 FIELD PATTERNS OF TE MODES
 The field patterns of several lower order transverse electric modes(TE)which are the
solution of the Maxwell’s equations are shown below

 The order of the mode is equal to the number of field zeros across the guide.
 The order of the mode is also related to the angle that the ray congruence corresponding
to this mode makes with the plane to the waveguide (or the axis of the fiber) steeper the
angle, higher the order.
 The plot shows that the electric fields of the guided modes are not completely confined
to the central dielectric slab (i.e. they do not go to zero at the guide-cladding interface)
but, instead, they extend partially into the cladding.
 FIELD PATTERNS OF TE MODES con…
The field vary harmonically in the guiding region of refractive index n1 and
decay exponentially outside this region
 For low order modes the field are tightly concentrated near the centre of the slab
(on the axis of the optical fiber) with little penetration into the cladding region.
 For higher order modes the fields are distributed more towards the edges of the
guide and penetrate more into cladding region