Atomic Molecular Physics Lecture-1

Atomic and Molecular Physics
Instructor-
Golam Dastegir Al-Quaderi
Associate Professor
Department of Physics, DU
1
Modern Physics
• The term “Modern Physics” means up-to-date
physics.
• Roughly since 1890, two new discoveries have
caused significant paradigm shifts in physics:
• A. The advent of quantum mechanics.
• B. The theory of relativity (special and general
relativities).
• Physics based on what was known before these
new theories (i.e. Newton’s laws, Maxwell’s
equations and thermodynamics) is called the
“classical physics”.
2
Realms of Physics
• Based on these two discoveries, there are four
realms of physics or of the physical laws that
govern the universe.
• 1. Classical Realm: The “classical” realm consists
of the everyday phenomena at “relatively” slow
speeds and at length scales of everyday life.
• Hence for the classical physics to apply, we have:
𝑣𝑣 ≪ 𝑐𝑐 and 𝑙𝑙 ≫ 𝑎𝑎0
where 𝑐𝑐 = the speed of light in free space
𝑎𝑎0 = the Bohr radius ≈ 0.5 Å
Realm: A field or domain of activity or interest. 3

Realms of Physics
• 2. Relativistic Realm: If the speed of an object is
comparable with the speed of light in free space, we move
to the realm of relativistic mechanics:
𝑣𝑣 ∼ 𝑐𝑐 and 𝑙𝑙 ≫ 𝑎𝑎0
• In the relativistic realm, the space and time are thought to
be parts of the same continuum or physical object called
the spacetime (one word).
• The length and time intervals are not the same in all
frames and mass and energy are related by the famous
formula
𝐸𝐸0 = 𝑚𝑚0 𝑐𝑐 2
hence allowing creation and annihilation of particle. Here
𝐸𝐸0 is the rest energy and 𝑚𝑚0 is the (rest) mass of the particle.
4
Realms of Physics
• 3. Quantum Realm: If on the other hand, the
speed of objects is small compared to the speed
of light in free space but the length scale of the
system is “small” (comparable to 𝑎𝑎0 ) we move to
the realm of quantum mechanics:
𝑣𝑣 ≪ 𝑐𝑐 and 𝑙𝑙 ∼ 𝑎𝑎0
• The quantum realm is characterized by:
• A. The fuzziness of position and momentum (by
the uncertainty relation) and
• B. Quantization of energy and other physical
observables.
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Realms of Physics
• Time in the quantum realm is however absolute
in the sense that it is not an observable rather
just a parameter, the same at all spatial positions.
• Non-relativistic Quantum Mechanics is not
relativistic, since space and time are dealt
separately.
• Associated with a particle, in the quantum realm
we have a “wave property” with the typical
wavelength:
𝜆𝜆𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = ℎ/𝑝𝑝
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Realms of Physics
• The length scale limit of the quantum realm
(∼ 𝑎𝑎0 ) can however be increased in certain
phenomena called the “macroscopic quantum
phenomena” (e.g. superconductivity, Bose-
Einstein condensation, etc. )
• These kind of phenomena occur when the
constituents of a system (atoms/molecules)
behave collectively by loosing their individual
entities.
• These effects tend to appear when dealing with
"lows" (low temperatures, small distances).
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Realms of Physics
• 4. Quantum Field Theoretic Realm: At the
extreme case when the speed of an object is
comparable with the speed of light in free space
and also the length scale of the system is “small”,
we move to the realm of quantum field theory.
𝑣𝑣 ∼ 𝑐𝑐 and 𝑙𝑙 ∼ 𝑎𝑎0
• In QFT we have quantization as well as creation
and annihilation of particles.
• The dynamical variables in QFT are fields, rather
than particles and the particles are seen as
excitations of the fields themselves.
8
Realms of Physics
• The four realms of physics:
9
Fundamental Constants of Nature
• The four realms of physics are defined by certain
“fundamental physical constants” that has certain
values and can not be derived from any basic theory.
• In the classical realm, we have the Newtonian gravity,
Maxwell’s electrodynamics and thermodynamics.
• These are characterized by the constants:
𝐺𝐺 = gravitational constant
𝜖𝜖0 =permittivity of space, 𝜇𝜇0 =permeability of space
𝑘𝑘𝐵𝐵 =Boltzmann constant
𝑁𝑁𝐴𝐴 = Avogadro’s number
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Fundamental Constants of Nature
• The relativistic realm is characterized by the
speed of light in free space:
𝑐𝑐 = speed of light in free space
• The quantum realm is characterized by the
Planck’s constant:
ℎ = Planck’s constant
• The quantum field theoretic realm is
characterized by both 𝑐𝑐 and ℎ (or ℏ = ℎ/2𝜋𝜋).
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Length Scales Associated with Particles
• 1. Rydberg Radius 𝜆𝜆𝑅𝑅 : In hydrogen atom (with
the proton assumed to be infinitely heavy), the
frequency of the photon emitted for transition
between state with quantum number 𝑛𝑛1 to 𝑛𝑛2 is:
𝐸𝐸𝑛𝑛1 −𝐸𝐸𝑛𝑛2
𝑓𝑓 =
ℎ
1 1
= 𝑅𝑅∞ 𝑐𝑐 −
𝑛𝑛22 𝑛𝑛12
• Here 𝑅𝑅∞ = Rydberg constant
• Here 𝑅𝑅∞ = 1/𝐿𝐿
i.e. has the dimension of inverse of length.
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• If a free electron jumps (i.e. is captured) from the last
orbit 𝑛𝑛1 → ∞ to the first orbit 𝑛𝑛2 = 1 in hydrogen
atom, then the frequency of the emitted photon is:
𝑓𝑓 = 𝑅𝑅∞ 𝑐𝑐
• The associated wavelength is called the Rydberg
wavelength:
𝜆𝜆𝑅𝑅 = 1/𝑅𝑅∞
3 2 3 2
64 𝜋𝜋 𝜖𝜖0 ℏ 𝑐𝑐 2ℎ 2ℎ 4𝜋𝜋𝜖𝜖0 ℏ𝑐𝑐
𝜆𝜆𝑅𝑅 = 4
= 2 =
𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑒 𝑒𝑒 𝛼𝛼 𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑒 𝑐𝑐 𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑒 𝑐𝑐 𝑒𝑒 2
• This is the series limit of Lyman series in hydrogen
spectrum.
13
• Physical Interpretation of 𝝀𝝀𝑹𝑹 :
• It is the minimum wavelength of a photon that
can come out of the atomic transition in
hydrogen atom (with the nucleus taken to be
infinitely heavy).
• A photon with wavelength 𝜆𝜆𝑅𝑅 is the most
energetic photon in atomic spectra.
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• 2. Bohr Radius: Bohr radius depends on the
electron mass, the electron charge, and Planck's
constant:
4𝜋𝜋𝜖𝜖0 ℏ2
𝑎𝑎0 =
𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑒 𝑒𝑒 2
• There is no speed of light in the formula but there
is ℏ, 𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑒 and 𝑒𝑒 in it.
• Hence it comes from a non-relativistic quantum
description of a charged particle (here the
electron).
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• 3. Compton Wavelength of a Particle: The Compton
wavelength of a particle, roughly speaking, is the
length scale at which relativistic quantum field theory
becomes crucial for its accurate description.
𝜆𝜆𝑐𝑐 = ℎ/𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
• Physical Interpretation of Compton Wavelength: We
can understand the physical significance of Compton
wavelength in the following FOUR equivalent ways:
• A. Canonical Way of associating a length to a particle
of mass 𝑚𝑚: Consider a canonical way to associate a
length to any particle of a given mass 𝑚𝑚 is using
relativistic as well as quantum effects.
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• Heuristic Derivation:
• 1. To construct a momentum using the mass
and the speed of light in free space:
𝑝𝑝 = 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
• 2. To construct a length using the above
momentum and the Planck’s constant:
𝑙𝑙 = ℎ/𝑝𝑝
• Then we get the Compton Wavelength 𝜆𝜆𝑐𝑐 :
𝜆𝜆𝑐𝑐 = 𝑙𝑙 = ℎ/𝑝𝑝 = ℎ/𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
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• B. Interpretation in terms of Photon of Equal
Wavelength:
• The Compton wavelength of a massive particle is equal
to the wavelength of a photon whose energy is equal
to the rest-energy of the massive particle.
• Heuristic Derivation: The energy of an electron at rest
is 𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑒 𝑐𝑐 2 .
• A photon of wavelength 𝜆𝜆 would have energy
𝜖𝜖 = ℎ𝜈𝜈 = ℎ𝑐𝑐/𝜆𝜆
• Equating the rest energy of the massive particle (e.g.
an electron) to the energy of a photon, we get:
𝑚𝑚𝑐𝑐 2 = 𝜖𝜖 = ℎ𝑐𝑐/𝜆𝜆 ⇒ 𝜆𝜆 = 𝜆𝜆𝑐𝑐 = ℎ/𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
18
• C. Interpretation in terms of particle-antiparticle
pair creation: A simple way to think of it is this:
Try to localize a particle to within less than its
Compton wavelength.
• This makes its momentum so uncertain that it can
have an energy large enough to make an extra
particle-antiparticle (e.g. electron-positron) pair!
• This is the length scale at which quantum field
theory, which describes particle creation,
becomes REALLY important for describing
electrons.
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• Heuristic Derivation: The energy of an electron
at rest is 𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑒 𝑐𝑐 2 .
• We try to confine an electron in a region/box
of size 𝐿𝐿.
• The uncertainty principle says that its
momentum can only be known up to an error
Δ𝑝𝑝 found from 𝐿𝐿Δ𝑝𝑝 ∼ ℏ/2 ⇒ Δ𝑝𝑝 ∼ ℏ/(2𝐿𝐿).
• Hence, its momentum can be taken to be
Δ𝑝𝑝 ∼ 𝑝𝑝 − 0 = 𝑝𝑝 ⇒ 𝑝𝑝 ∼ ℏ/(2𝐿𝐿)
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• If we make 𝐿𝐿 small enough (i.e. 𝐿𝐿 ≈ 𝐿𝐿𝑐𝑐 ), Δ𝑝𝑝 will
be so big that the electron may have a kinetic
energy bigger than twice the rest energy 𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑒 𝑐𝑐 2 .
• This would be enough to form an electron-
positron pair!
𝑝𝑝2 𝑐𝑐 2 = 𝐸𝐸 2 − 𝑚𝑚2 𝑐𝑐 4 = 𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾 2 ≈ 2𝑚𝑚𝑐𝑐 2 2
⇒ 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 ≈ 2𝑚𝑚𝑐𝑐 2 ⇒ 𝑝𝑝 ≈ 2𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
• This effect -- the creation of new particles while
trying to determine the position of old ones -- will
kick in at around the Compton wavelength 𝜆𝜆𝑐𝑐
21
• From uncertainty principle: 𝐿𝐿𝑐𝑐 𝑝𝑝 ∼ ℏ/2
• Hence, we get the reduced Compton wavelength:
𝐿𝐿𝑐𝑐 = 7𝑐𝑐 ⇒ 𝐿𝐿𝑐𝑐 ≈ ℏ / 2𝑝𝑝 or, 7𝑐𝑐 ≈ ℏ/ 4𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 or
𝜆𝜆𝑐𝑐 = ℎ/𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
where we have ignored the factor of 4.
• D. Interpretation in terms of Uncertainty in the
determination of a Single Particle by Light
Scattering:
• We may measure the position of a (massive)
particle by illuminating it with light.
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• The measurement of the position of a particle
can be done with a “precision” only of the
order of the wavelength of the light with
which it has been illuminated.
• Because at length scales less than the
wavelength of a photon, the photon can be
thought of as “smeared out”.
23
• A small wavelength photon is highly energetic and can
“probe” smaller lengths.
• Thus the position of a specific massive particle may be
determined only with an accuracy of the order of the
Compton wavelength of the particle, being equal to the
wavelength of incident photon.
Δ𝑥𝑥 ∼ 𝜆𝜆𝑐𝑐 = 𝜆𝜆𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = 𝜆𝜆
• If the momentum of the incident photon is greater
than the Compton wavelength of the particle, particle-
anti-particle pair will be created and we can not
distinguish between the original particle and the newly
created particles.
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Probing Small Length Scales
• To probe small length scales, we need “wave”
of small wavelength.
• Bacteria in optical Bacteria in electron
microscope microscope
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• Bacteria in optical Bacteria in electron
microscope as viewed microscope as viewed
using visible light using electrons!
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• With a visible light microscope, we are limited to
being able to resolve objects which are at least
(i.e. up to the smallest limit) about:
𝑙𝑙 ∼ 0.5 × 10−6 m = 0.5 𝜇𝜇m = 500 nm
• This is because visible light, with a wavelength of
∼ 500 nm cannot resolve objects whose size is
smaller than it􀀁􀀁s wavelength.
• SEM can resolve features as small as 5 nm. This is
about 100 times better than can be done with
visible light microscopes!
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Creatures of the small world
Hydrothermal
Worm
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• Dermatophagoides
pteronyssinus
• Butterfly tongue
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• Linognathus setosus, dog sucking lice
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• Dust
mite
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• Relation of Bohr Radius to Compton

Wavelength:
• The ratio of the Bohr radius to the reduced
Compton wavelength of the electron is
𝑎𝑎0 4𝜋𝜋𝜖𝜖0 ℏ2 𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑒 𝑐𝑐 4𝜋𝜋𝜖𝜖0 ℏ𝑐𝑐
= 2
= 2
= 1/𝛼𝛼
7𝑐𝑐 𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑒 𝑒𝑒 ℏ 𝑒𝑒
𝑎𝑎0
• This ratio is about 137, the inverse of the
7𝑐𝑐
fine structure constant.
32
• This implies quantum field theory effects start
really mattering for electrons on a distance
scale 1/137 the size of the hydrogen atom.
• This is why people were able to notice these
field-theoretic effects and develop QED not
too long after they came up with a quantum-
mechanical description of the hydrogen atom.
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• 4. The Classical Electron Radius or Lorentz Radius or
Thomson Scattering Length: Another characteristic
length scale associated with the electron is the length
scale at which, the electrostatic “self” energy produced
by the electromagnetic field of the electron, is equal to
the rest energy of the particle (electron).
• We can think of this energy as part of the electron’s
mass.
• The length scale at which this effect becomes really
important is called the classical electron radius:
1 𝑒𝑒 2
𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑒 =
4 𝜋𝜋𝜖𝜖0 𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑒 𝑐𝑐 2
34
• Note that it is ”classical” (not quantum
mechanical), in the sense that because it only
depends on classical electromagnetism and the
concept of special theory of relativity.
• This uses the concept of rest mass and hence is
relativistic in nature (hence the constant 𝑐𝑐 in the
formula).
• Derivation: The total energy necessary to
assemble total charge 𝑞𝑞 into a uniform sphere of
radius 𝑟𝑟 can be thought of sum of bits of energy
required to “build” the charged sphere.
35
• The infinitesimal amount of energy 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 associated
with building a layer of charge 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝜌𝜌4𝜋𝜋𝑟𝑟 2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 of
thickness 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 𝒓𝒓
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑉𝑉 𝑟𝑟 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
where 𝑉𝑉 𝑟𝑟 = 𝑞𝑞(𝑟𝑟)/(4𝜋𝜋𝜖𝜖0 𝑟𝑟) = potential of the
already present sphere of radius 𝑟𝑟.
• Upon integration from 𝑟𝑟 = 0 to 𝑟𝑟 = 𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑒 we get:
𝑞𝑞 𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑒
𝑈𝑈 𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑒 = � 𝑉𝑉 𝑟𝑟 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = � 𝑞𝑞 𝑟𝑟 𝜌𝜌4𝜋𝜋𝑟𝑟 2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑/ 4𝜋𝜋𝜖𝜖0 𝑟𝑟
0 0
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• But 𝑞𝑞 𝑟𝑟 = 𝜌𝜌4𝜋𝜋𝑟𝑟 3 /3 which gives:
𝑟𝑟
𝑈𝑈(𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑒 ) = ∫0 𝑒𝑒 𝜌𝜌2 𝑟𝑟 4 4 𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 / 3𝜖𝜖0 = 4𝜋𝜋𝜌𝜌2 𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑒5 / 15𝜖𝜖0
2
3𝑞𝑞 4𝜋𝜋𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑒5
⇒ 𝑈𝑈 𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑒 =
4 𝜋𝜋𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑒3 15 𝜖𝜖0
3 1 𝑞𝑞2
⇒ 𝑈𝑈(𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑒 ) =
5 4𝜋𝜋𝜖𝜖0 𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑒
• This is called the electrostatic self-energy of the object.
• Equating the self energy to the rest mass energy gives the
classical electron radius:
𝑈𝑈 𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑒 ≈ 𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑒 𝑐𝑐 2
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• The numerical factor 3/5 is ignored as being specific to
the special case of a uniform charge density.
• Physical Interpretation of 𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑒 :
• A. 𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑒 is the radius of the charged sphere having the
charge of the electron whose electrostatic energy is
equal to the rest energy of the electron.
• B. 𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑒 is the “size” of the electron that an incoming
photon sees in scattering experiments.
• The Thomson scattering cross-section (cross-section for
scattering of photons by free electrons) is given by:
8𝜋𝜋 2
𝜎𝜎𝑇𝑇 = 𝑟𝑟
3 𝑒𝑒
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• Heuristic Derivation:
• Consider photon scattered from an initially free
electron of mass 𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑒 : 𝑒𝑒 − + 𝛾𝛾 → 𝑒𝑒 − + 𝛾𝛾
• The electron moves (oscillates) in response to the
electromagnetic field of the photon.
• A. The particle
is assumed to 𝑬𝑬
undergo small Scattered photon
amplitude
oscillations about an equilibrium position.
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• B. Furthermore, the particle's velocity is assumed
to remain sub-relativistic, which makes the
magnetic component of the Lorentz force
negligible.
• This results in electromagnetic radiation being
emitted by the accelerating electron.
• Hence, Thomson Scattering it is the scattering of
electromagnetic radiation by a free nonrelativistic
charged particle.
• It is just the low-energy limit of Compton
scattering.
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• The scattering is elastic and hence the particle’s kinetic
energy and emitted photon’s frequency (and hence
energy) remains the same.
• The time-averaged power radiated per unit solid angle
by an accelerating non-relativistic charged particle is:
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑞𝑞2 𝑦𝑦̈ 2 2
= 2 3
sin 𝜃𝜃
𝑑𝑑Ω 16𝜋𝜋 𝜖𝜖0 𝑐𝑐
where 𝜃𝜃 is the angle between the scattered photon and
the acceleration of the electron,
𝑦𝑦̈ = 𝑑𝑑2 𝑦𝑦/𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡 2 is the acceleration of the electron.
41
• From Newton’s second law: 𝑚𝑚𝑦𝑦̈ = 𝐹𝐹 = 𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞 ,
we get: 𝑦𝑦̈ 2 = 𝑞𝑞 2 𝐸𝐸 2 /𝑚𝑚2 = 𝑞𝑞 2 𝐸𝐸02 / 2𝑚𝑚2
• Hence time averaged scattered power per unit
solid angle is:
2
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑞𝑞 2 𝜖𝜖0 𝑐𝑐𝐸𝐸02 2
= sin 𝜃𝜃
𝑑𝑑Ω 4𝜋𝜋𝜖𝜖0 𝑚𝑚𝑐𝑐 2 2
• The time-averaged Poynting flux of the
incident wave is
𝑆𝑆⃗𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 . 𝑛𝑛� = 𝑢𝑢 = 𝜖𝜖0 𝑐𝑐𝐸𝐸02 /2
42
• The differential scattering cross-section is the as the
equivalent fictitious area of the incident wavefront
through which the incident wave has to pass to be
scattered in a particular direction per unit solid angle:
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑/𝑑𝑑Ω 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑/𝑑𝑑Ω
= =
𝑑𝑑Ω 𝑆𝑆⃗𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 . 𝑛𝑛� 𝑢𝑢
43
• Thus,
2 2
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑞𝑞 2 𝜃𝜃
= sin
𝑑𝑑Ω 4𝜋𝜋𝜖𝜖0 𝑚𝑚𝑐𝑐 2
• The total scattering cross-section is then:
𝜃𝜃=𝜋𝜋,𝜙𝜙=2𝜋𝜋
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝜎𝜎𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 =� 𝑑𝑑Ω = � sin 𝜃𝜃 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑Ω 𝑑𝑑Ω
𝜃𝜃=0,𝜙𝜙=0
2
8𝜋𝜋 𝑞𝑞2 8𝜋𝜋 2
⇒ 𝜎𝜎𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 = 𝜎𝜎𝑇𝑇 = = 𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑒
3 4𝜋𝜋𝜖𝜖0 𝑚𝑚𝑐𝑐 2 3
44
Relationship Between Length Scales
Associated with Particles
• The Bohr radius, the Compton wavelength and
the classical electron radius are related by the
fine structure constant 𝛼𝛼 as:
ℏ𝑐𝑐 𝜆𝜆𝑐𝑐 2 𝑒𝑒 2
𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑒 = 𝛼𝛼 = 𝛼𝛼 = 𝛼𝛼 𝑎𝑎0 , 𝛼𝛼 =
𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑒 𝑐𝑐 2 2𝜋𝜋 4𝜋𝜋𝜖𝜖0 ℏ𝑐𝑐
𝜆𝜆𝑐𝑐 2𝜋𝜋 𝑎𝑎0 1 𝜆𝜆𝑅𝑅 4𝜋𝜋
= , = , =
𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝛼𝛼 𝜆𝜆𝑐𝑐 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 𝑎𝑎0 𝛼𝛼
4𝜋𝜋𝜖𝜖0 ℏ2 ℏ𝑐𝑐 𝑒𝑒 2 ℏ𝑐𝑐 2ℎ
𝑎𝑎0 = = 𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑒 = 2
= 𝛼𝛼 𝜆𝜆𝑅𝑅 = 2
𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑒 𝑒𝑒 2 𝛼𝛼𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑒 𝑐𝑐 2 4𝜋𝜋𝜖𝜖0 𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑒 𝑐𝑐 𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑒 𝑐𝑐 2 𝛼𝛼 𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑒 𝑐𝑐
45
Relationship Between Length Scales
Associated with Particles
• The Compton wavelength of the electron is a
fundamental length scale using ℎ, 𝑐𝑐 and 𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑒 :
ℎ
𝜆𝜆𝑐𝑐 =
𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑒 𝑐𝑐
• Then 𝛼𝛼 may be thought of as a scaling factor to
get all the previous length scales i.e. 𝜆𝜆𝑅𝑅 , 𝑎𝑎0 and
𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑒 :
2 1 𝛼𝛼
𝜆𝜆𝑅𝑅 =
𝛼𝛼 2 𝜆𝜆𝑐𝑐 , 𝑎𝑎0 = 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋
𝜆𝜆𝑐𝑐 , 𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑒 =
2𝜋𝜋
𝜆𝜆𝑐𝑐
• We can equivalently define these four lengths for
any other massive charged particle.
46
Values of Length Scales Associated
with Particles
• We have (for electron):
𝜆𝜆𝑅𝑅 = 91.126 nm
𝑎𝑎0 = 5.3 × 10−11 m ≈ 53 pm
𝜆𝜆𝑐𝑐 = 2.426 × 10−12 m=2.426 pm= 2426 fm
𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑒 = 2.81794 × 10−15 m ≈ 2.82 fm
• Note that, 𝜆𝜆𝑅𝑅 ≫ 𝑎𝑎0 ≫ 𝜆𝜆𝑐𝑐 ≫ 𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑒
• At 𝜆𝜆𝑅𝑅 , the quantum effects are not so
prominent.
47
The Fine Structure Constant
𝑒𝑒 2
• Planck noticed that, the combination has
4 𝜋𝜋𝜖𝜖0 𝑐𝑐
the same dimension as his constant ℎ.
• The combination
𝑒𝑒 2 1
𝛼𝛼 = ≈
4 𝜋𝜋𝜖𝜖0 ℏ𝑐𝑐 137
is called the fine structure constant.
• The name was first introduced by Sommerfeld
whose theory could explain the “fine structure”
or splitting of hydrogen’s doublet red H𝛼𝛼 lines.
48
The Fine Structure Constant
• The difference of frequencies in the doublet
is:
Δ𝜈𝜈 = 𝑅𝑅𝛼𝛼 2 /16 = 0.365 cm−1
• We can consider 𝛼𝛼 as the coupling constant of
electromagnetic interaction, which is related
to the electronic charge.
49
Length Scale Associated with Particles
• 5. Schwarzschild Radius: If all the mass of an object or
particle is squeezed into a length which will convert the
particle/object into a black hole is called its Schwarzschild
radius:
2𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺
𝑟𝑟𝑆𝑆 = 2
𝑐𝑐
• This occurs in the solution of the Einstein field equation in
general relativity.
• The Schwarzschild radius of electron
𝑟𝑟𝑆𝑆−𝑒𝑒 ≈ 1.353 × 10−57 m.
• In reality, physicists expect quantum gravity effects to
become significant even at much larger length scales,
comparable to the Planck length.
50
Planck Length
• This is the length scale at which quantum
gravity should become important.
• This is the length scale formed out of ℏ
(quantum effect), 𝑐𝑐 (relativistic effect) and 𝐺𝐺
(gravitational effect).
• There is only one such length called the Planck
length:
𝑙𝑙𝑃𝑃 = ℏ𝐺𝐺/𝑐𝑐 3 1/2
𝑙𝑙𝑃𝑃 ≈ 1.6 × 10−35 m
51
Planck Mass, Planck Time
• Corresponding to the Planck length we can define Planck
mass and Planck time as combinations of ℏ, 𝑐𝑐 and 𝐺𝐺 giving
quantities of mass and time:
ℏ𝑐𝑐
𝑚𝑚𝑃𝑃 =
𝐺𝐺
𝑡𝑡𝑃𝑃 = 𝑙𝑙𝑃𝑃 /𝑐𝑐
• The same result could be obtained by equating the reduced
Compton wavelength of a particle of mass 𝑚𝑚 to its
Schwarzschild radius:
𝜆𝜆𝑐𝑐 𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺 ℏ 𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺
≈ 2 ⇒ = 2 ⇒ 𝑚𝑚𝑃𝑃 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐/𝐺𝐺 1/2
2𝜋𝜋 𝑐𝑐 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑐𝑐
52
Planck Mass, Planck Time, Planck
Temperature
• We have:
𝑡𝑡𝑃𝑃 = 5.397 × 10−44 s
𝐸𝐸𝑃𝑃 = 𝑚𝑚𝑃𝑃 𝑐𝑐 2 = 1.212 × 1019 GeV
𝑚𝑚𝑃𝑃 = 2.176 × 10−8 kg
• We can also define Planck temperature through:
ℏ𝑐𝑐 5
𝑘𝑘𝐵𝐵 𝑇𝑇𝑃𝑃 = 𝐸𝐸𝑃𝑃 = 𝑚𝑚𝑃𝑃 𝑐𝑐 2 ⇒ 𝑇𝑇𝑃𝑃 =
𝐺𝐺𝑘𝑘𝐵𝐵2
𝑇𝑇𝑃𝑃 = 1.416 × 1032 K
• At temperatures greater than 𝑇𝑇𝑃𝑃 known physical theory
breaks down.
53
Energy Scales of Physical Phenomena
• Different physical phenomena have some
characteristic energy scales associated with them.
• For example, the chemical reactions occur at the
energy scales of electron volt since it is the
atomic energy level.
• However nuclear reaction occurs at the
characteristic energy scale of MeV.
• Thermal processes occur at meV energy scales.
54
• 1. Rest Mass Energy:
• We can associate the rest mass energy 𝑚𝑚𝑐𝑐 2 with each
particle of mass 𝑚𝑚.
• In normal matter, made of nucleons and electrons, the
rest-mass energy is:
𝑚𝑚 𝑐𝑐 2 ≈ 0.5 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀
𝑒𝑒
𝑚𝑚𝑐𝑐 2 = �
𝑚𝑚𝑝𝑝 𝑐𝑐 2 ≈ 938 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀
• Since the total mass of an atom is mainly due to
nucleons, the total rest-mass energy of an atom is
approximately:
𝐸𝐸𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 ≈ 𝐴𝐴𝑚𝑚𝑝𝑝 𝑐𝑐 2
55
Energy Scales of Interactions
• If the particles of the system have internal
structure (molecular, atomic, nuclear, etc.) then
we get further energy scales that are
characteristic of the interactions.
• Fundamental Interactions/Forces: There are four
fundamental interactions in nature:
• 1. Gravitational
• 2. Electromagnetic
• 3. Weak Nuclear
• 4. Strong Nuclear
56
• Electromagnetic Force: Of these four
forces/interactions, the most ubiquitous one is the
electromagnetic interaction.
• Phenomena which owe their origin to electromagnetic
interaction include:
• 1. Structure of atoms having electrons moving around
nucleus.
• 2. Structure of molecules and chemical bonding.
• 3. van der Waals interaction between molecules.
• 4. Forces between rigid bodies upon contact.
• 5. Chemical reactions, etc.
Ubiquitous: omnipresent, abundant

57
• 2. Atomic Energy Scale: Of the energy scales that
originate from electromagnetic interactions, the
atomic energy scale is the biggest one.
• The characteristic size scale and energy of the ground
state of a hydrogen atom are:
4𝜋𝜋𝜖𝜖0 ℏ2 −11 m
𝑎𝑎0 = ≈ 5.3 × 10
𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑒 𝑒𝑒 2
2 2
𝑒𝑒 𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑒 𝑐𝑐 2 1 2 2
𝐸𝐸1 = − 2 2
= − 𝛼𝛼 𝑚𝑚 𝑒𝑒 𝑐𝑐 ≈ −13.6 eV
4𝜋𝜋𝜖𝜖0 2ℏ 𝑐𝑐 2
where 𝛼𝛼 ≈ 1/137, is the fine structure constant.
58
• The wavelength corresponding to 𝐸𝐸1 is:
𝑐𝑐 ℎ𝑐𝑐 2ℎ
𝜆𝜆 = = = 2 = 𝜆𝜆𝑅𝑅 ≈ 91 nm
𝜈𝜈 𝐸𝐸1 𝛼𝛼 𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑒 𝑐𝑐
which lies in the UV region.
59
• 3. Molecular Energy Scale: To estimate the
molecular energy scale, consider the simplest
possible molecule, the diatomic molecule
consisting of two atoms bound to each other.
• The potential energy of interaction is electrostatic
in nature, just like that in the hydrogen atom.
• The electronic potential energy responsible for
binding the two molecules have a minimum at a
separation of 𝑟𝑟 ≈ 𝑎𝑎0
60
• The depth of the potential has a minimum
that is comparable with the electronic-energy
level:
61
• In addition to the electronic internal binding
energy of the atoms comprising the molecule,
there are two other contributions to the
energy of a diatomic molecule.
• A. Vibrational Potential and Kinetic Energy.
• B. Rotational Kinetic Energy.
• A. Vibrational Energy: To estimate the
vibrational energy levels we must know the
force constant between the molecules.
62
• Near the minimum of the potential, it can be
approximated as a parabola in shape.
• But the minimum of the potential energy
occurs at around 𝐸𝐸1 i.e. agrees to the order of
magnitude to ground state energy of 𝐻𝐻 atom.
• Hence, the vibrational potential energy is:
1 2 2
𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾 ≈ 𝜇𝜇𝜔𝜔𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 𝑙𝑙
2
63
• Here, 𝑙𝑙 = the equilibrium separation distance which is of
the order of 𝑎𝑎0 ,
• 𝜇𝜇 ≈ 𝑚𝑚𝑝𝑝 is the reduced mass, approximately equal to the
mass of the proton in H2
1 2 1
• Hence, 𝜇𝜇𝜔𝜔𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 𝑎𝑎02 ≈ −𝐸𝐸1 = 𝛼𝛼 2 𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑒 𝑐𝑐 2
2 2
2
⇒ 𝜔𝜔𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 ≈ 𝛼𝛼 2 𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑒 𝑐𝑐 2 𝛼𝛼𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑒 𝑐𝑐 2 2 / ℏ𝑐𝑐 2 𝜇𝜇
2
⇒ ℏ2 𝜔𝜔𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 ≈ 𝛼𝛼 4 𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑒2 𝑐𝑐 4 (𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑒 /𝜇𝜇)
1
𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑒2
⇒ Δ𝐸𝐸𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 = ℏ𝜔𝜔𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 ≈ 𝐸𝐸1 ≈ 0.25 eV
𝜇𝜇
which is the separation between the vibrational energy
levels.
4𝜋𝜋𝜖𝜖0 ℏ2 ℏ𝑐𝑐
𝑎𝑎0 = =
𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑒 𝑒𝑒 2 𝛼𝛼𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑒 𝑐𝑐 2 64
• B. Rotational Energy Scale: The molecule can also rotate
about an axis perpendicular to the line joining them.
• If the orbital angular momentum is 𝐿𝐿, this will contribute an
energy:
1
𝐸𝐸𝐿𝐿 = 𝐿𝐿 𝐿𝐿 + 1 ℏ2 , 𝐿𝐿 = 0, 1, 2, 3, …
2𝐼𝐼
• To the order of magnitude, 𝐼𝐼 ≈ 𝜇𝜇𝑎𝑎02 and
𝐿𝐿2 ℏ2
𝐸𝐸𝐿𝐿 ≈ 2 ≈ 2
𝜇𝜇𝑎𝑎0 𝜇𝜇𝑎𝑎0
ℏ𝑐𝑐 1 2 2 , we get
• Using 𝑎𝑎0 = , 𝐸𝐸1 = 𝛼𝛼 𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑒 𝑐𝑐
𝛼𝛼𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑒 𝑐𝑐 2 2
𝐸𝐸𝐿𝐿 ≈ 𝛼𝛼 2 𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑒 𝑐𝑐 2 𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑒 /𝜇𝜇 ≈ 𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑒 /𝜇𝜇 𝐸𝐸1 ≈ 10−2 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒
65
• Hence we have:
1/2
𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑒 𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑒
𝐸𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 : 𝐸𝐸𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 : 𝐸𝐸0 ≈ : :1
𝜇𝜇 𝜇𝜇
• Since 𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑒 /𝜇𝜇 ≈ 10−3 , we have:
• 1. The wavelengths of radiation from vibrational
transitions are 40 times larger than those of electronic
transitions.
• 2. The rotational transitions lead to radiation with
wavelengths ∼ 103 larger than those of electronic
transitions.
• These wavelengths are usually in the IR band.
66
• Strong Nuclear Interaction: In the atomic regime,
charged electrons are bound to the nucleus by
electromagnetic interaction.
• If we focus to the nucleus itself, which has an extent
∼ 10−15 𝑚𝑚, we must consider strong nuclear force.
• 4. Nuclear Energy Scale: We may estimate the nuclear
energy scale either from the binding energy or from
energy required for nuclear reaction.
• A. Nuclear Binding Energy: Atomic nuclei are bound by
the strong interaction force that produces a binding
energy per particle about 8 MeV, which is the
characteristic scale for nuclear energy levels.
67
• Binding energy per nucleon: 𝐸𝐸𝑏𝑏 /𝐴𝐴
68
• There are different empirical models for the nuclear
binding energies, which kind of predict the binding
energy.
• These include the liquid-drop model, the shell model,
etc.
• Nuclear Reaction Energy: We can estimate the energy
scale at which nuclear reactions can be triggered.
• For two protons to combine inside a single nucleus,
undergoing nuclear reaction, it is necessary that they
are brought within the range of attractive nuclear
force.
69
• This requires overcoming the Coulomb
repulsion:
𝑒𝑒 2 1 2
938𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀
𝐸𝐸 ≈ ≈ 𝛼𝛼𝑚𝑚𝑝𝑝 𝑐𝑐 = ≈ 1𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀
𝐿𝐿𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 2 2 × 137
70
• Weak Nuclear Interaction: The weak nuclear
interaction is being mediated by the intermediate
vector bosons, 𝑊𝑊 ± and 𝑍𝑍0 .
• 5. Weak Energy Scale: The range of this force is
1
small as the range vary as 𝑅𝑅 ∼ ∼ 10−18 𝑚𝑚
𝑀𝑀𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
• The energy scale associated with this force is of
the order of 𝑀𝑀𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑐𝑐 2 ∼ 100 𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺
• Note that: 𝑀𝑀𝑊𝑊 ≈ 80 𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺/𝑐𝑐 2 , 𝑀𝑀𝑍𝑍 ≈ 91 𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺/𝑐𝑐 2
71
• Gravitational Interaction: In the non-relativistic, Newtonian
theory of gravity, we can estimate the gravitational energy
scale from the self energy of a massive body.
• 6. Gravitational Energy Scale: the gravitational energy of a
system of size 𝑅𝑅 and mass 𝑀𝑀 is (𝑁𝑁 is the number of
particles):
𝑀𝑀2
𝐸𝐸gr ≈ 𝐺𝐺 = 𝐺𝐺𝑚𝑚𝑝𝑝2 /𝑅𝑅 𝑁𝑁 2
𝑅𝑅
• Thus the potential energy per particle is:
𝐸𝐸𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 𝐺𝐺𝑚𝑚𝑝𝑝2 4 3 𝐺𝐺𝑚𝑚𝑝𝑝2 2
4 2
𝑢𝑢𝑔𝑔 = ≈ 𝑁𝑁 = 𝜋𝜋𝑅𝑅 𝑛𝑛 = 𝐺𝐺𝑚𝑚𝑝𝑝 𝜋𝜋𝑅𝑅 𝑛𝑛
𝑁𝑁 𝑅𝑅 3 𝑅𝑅 3
where 𝑛𝑛 = 3𝑁𝑁/(4𝜋𝜋𝑅𝑅 3 ) is the number density of particles.
72
• Hence, we have
4𝜋𝜋 1/3
𝑢𝑢𝑔𝑔 = 𝐺𝐺𝑚𝑚𝑝𝑝2 𝑁𝑁 2/3 𝑛𝑛1/3
3
• This depends on the total number of particles as well
as the number density i.e. on the radius of the massive
body.
• General relativistic effect becomes important when
𝐸𝐸𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 𝑀𝑀2
≈ 1 ⇒ 𝐺𝐺 ≈ 𝑀𝑀𝑐𝑐 2
𝐸𝐸𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑅𝑅
i.e. at 𝑀𝑀/𝑅𝑅 ≈ 𝑐𝑐 2 /𝐺𝐺
73
• 7. Thermal Energy Scale: A system in local
thermodynamic equilibrium can be
characterized by a temperature T and energy
𝐸𝐸 ≈ 𝑘𝑘𝐵𝐵 𝑇𝑇
• At around 298 K, the thermal energy becomes
𝐸𝐸 = 𝑘𝑘𝐵𝐵 298𝐾𝐾 = 4.11 × 10−21 𝐽𝐽 = 25.7 meV
• The thermal energy scale is relevant to
biological processes in nature.
74

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Atomic and Molecular Physics

Realm: A field or domain of activity or interest. 3

• Relation of Bohr Radius to Compton

Ubiquitous: omnipresent, abundant

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