Chapter 3

Interference of Light

 Interference, in physics, the net effect of the combination of two or more wave
trains moving on intersecting or coincident paths. The effect is that of the addition of
the amplitudes of the individual waves at each point affected by more than one wave.

Conditions of interference:

Superposition of two mechanical waves can be constructive or destructive. In constructive

interference the amplitude of the resultant wave at a given position or time is greater than that of
either individual wave. In destructive interference, the resultant amplitude is less than that of either
individual waves.
In order to observe interference in light waves, the following conditions must be met:
• The sources must be coherent, which means they have to maintain a constant phase
difference with respect to one another.
• The sources must be monochromatic, that is of a single wavelength.
Phenomenon of interference are of two types:
• Division of wavefronts
• Division of amplitude

Division of wavefronts
Coherent sources are obtained by dividing the input wavefronts originating from a common source
by using mirrors, bi-prism, lenses etc.
Example: Youngs’ double slit experiment, Fresnel’s bi-prism etc.

Division of amplitude
The amplitude of the input beam is divided into two or more parts either by partial reflection or
refraction. In this process light falls on a partially refracting surface. Part of light is transmitted
 and part is refracted and after further multiplication these parts are recombined to give interference
effect.
Example: Michelson interferometer.

Superposition principle:

Intensity Distribution of Light:

In accordance with the Principle of Superposition, the electric field intensity 𝐸⃗ , at a point in space,
arising from the separate fields ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐸1 , ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐸2, . . . of various contributing sources is given by:
𝐸⃗ = ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐸1 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐸2 + ⋯ ….
Consider two point sources, S1 and S2, emitting monochromatic waves of the same frequency in a
homogeneous medium. Let their separation a be much greater than l. We locate the point of
observation P far enough away from the sources so that at P the wavefronts will be planes. For the
moment, we consider superposition of the waves at P:
⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐸1 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗1 . 𝑟 − 𝜔𝑡 +∈1 )…..(1)
𝐸01 cos(𝑘
⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐸2 = 𝐸 ⃗⃗⃗⃗
02 cos(𝑘2 . 𝑟 − 𝜔𝑡 +∈2 )…..(2)

The irradiance at P is given by: 𝐼 =∈ 𝑣〈𝐸⃗ 2 〉 𝑇

We take relative irradiance for a particular media, 𝐼 = 〈𝐸⃗ 2 〉 𝑇 ………. (3)

Now at P, : 𝐸⃗ = ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐸1 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐸2
So, 𝐸⃗ 2 = (𝐸
⃗⃗⃗⃗1 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗1 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐸2 ). (𝐸 𝐸2 ) = 𝐸⃗12 + 𝐸⃗22 + 2𝐸
⃗⃗⃗⃗1 . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐸2

 〈𝐸⃗ 2 〉 𝑇 = 〈𝐸⃗12 〉 𝑇 + 〈𝐸⃗22 〉 𝑇 + 2〈𝐸

⃗⃗⃗⃗1 . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐸2 〉 𝑇
⃗⃗⃗⃗1 . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
 𝐼 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 + 𝐼12 , where 𝐼12 = 2〈𝐸 𝐸2 〉 𝑇 , the interference term.

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
 𝐼12 = 2〈𝐸 ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗
01 cos(𝑘1 . 𝑟 − 𝜔𝑡 +∈1 ) . 𝐸02 cos(𝑘2 . 𝑟 − 𝜔𝑡 +∈2 )〉 𝑇

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
 𝐼12 = 2〈𝐸 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗
01 . 𝐸02 cos(𝑘1 . 𝑟 − 𝜔𝑡 +∈1 ) cos(𝑘2 . 𝑟 − 𝜔𝑡 +∈2 )〉 𝑇
 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
 𝐼12 = 2𝐸 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗
01 . 𝐸02 〈{cos(𝑘1 . 𝑟 +∈1 ) cos 𝜔𝑡 + sin(𝑘1 . 𝑟 +∈1 ) sin 𝜔𝑡}{ cos(𝑘2 . 𝑟 +

⃗⃗⃗⃗2 . 𝑟 +∈2 ) sin 𝜔𝑡}〉 𝑇

∈2 ) cos 𝜔𝑡 + sin(𝑘


⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
 𝐼12 = 2𝐸 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗ 2 ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗
01 . 𝐸02 〈{{cos(𝑘1 . 𝑟 +∈1 ) cos(𝑘2 . 𝑟 +∈2 ) 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝑡} + cos(𝑘1 . 𝑟 +∈1 ) sin(𝑘2 . 𝑟 +

⃗⃗⃗⃗1 . 𝑟 +∈1 ) cos(𝑘

∈2 ) sin 𝜔𝑡 cos 𝜔𝑡 + sin(𝑘 ⃗⃗⃗⃗2 . 𝑟 +∈2 ) sin 𝜔𝑡 cos 𝜔𝑡 + sin(𝑘
⃗⃗⃗⃗1 . 𝑟 +∈1 ) sin(𝑘
⃗⃗⃗⃗2 . 𝑟 +

∈2 ) 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜔𝑡}〉 𝑇 `

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
 𝐼12 = 2𝐸 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗ 2 ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗
01 . 𝐸02 {〈cos(𝑘1 . 𝑟 +∈1 ) cos(𝑘2 . 𝑟 +∈2 ) 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝑡〉 𝑇 + 〈cos(𝑘1 . 𝑟 +∈1 ) sin(𝑘2 . 𝑟 +

⃗⃗⃗⃗1 . 𝑟 +∈1 ) cos(𝑘

∈2 ) sin 𝜔𝑡 cos 𝜔𝑡〉 𝑇 + 〈sin(𝑘 ⃗⃗⃗⃗2 . 𝑟 +∈2 ) sin 𝜔𝑡 cos 𝜔𝑡〉 𝑇 + 〈sin(𝑘
⃗⃗⃗⃗1 . 𝑟 +

⃗⃗⃗⃗2 . 𝑟 +∈2 ) 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜔𝑡}〉 𝑇 }

∈1 ) sin(𝑘

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
 𝐼12 = 2𝐸 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 1 ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗ 1
⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗
01 . 𝐸02 {2 cos(𝑘1 . 𝑟 +∈1 ) cos(𝑘2 . 𝑟 +∈2 ) + 0 + 0 + 2 sin(𝑘1 . 𝑟 +∈1 ) sin(𝑘2 . 𝑟 +∈2 )}

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
 𝐼12 = 2𝐸 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 1 ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗
01 . 𝐸02 2 cos(𝑘1 . 𝑟 +∈1 − 𝑘2 . 𝑟 −∈2 )

 𝐼12 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐸01 . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗1 . 𝑟 +∈1 − ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐸02 cos(𝑘 𝑘2 . 𝑟 −∈2 )

 𝐼12 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐸01 . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐸02 cos 𝛿
Where, 𝛿 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑘1 . 𝑟 +∈1 − ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑘2 . 𝑟 −∈2

Now if, 𝐸⃗01 ⊥ 𝐸⃗02 , then 𝐼12 = 0 => 𝐼 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2

if, 𝐸⃗01 ∥ 𝐸⃗02, 𝐼12 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

𝐸01 . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐸02 cos 𝛿
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗2 cos2 (𝑘
Now, 𝐼1 = 〈𝐸⃗12 〉 𝑇 = 〈𝐸 ⃗⃗⃗⃗1 . 𝑟 − 𝜔𝑡 +∈1 )〉 𝑇 = 1 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝐸 = 2 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐸 . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
1
𝐸01 2
01 2 01 01

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐸01 . = √2𝐼1 ; Similarly 𝐸 02 . = √2𝐼2

∴ 𝐼12 = √2𝐼1 √2𝐼2 cos 𝛿 = 2√𝐼1 𝐼2 cos 𝛿

 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛, 𝐼 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 + 2√𝐼1 𝐼2 cos 𝛿

Case 01:
Maximum irradiance, 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 + 2√𝐼1 𝐼2 [∵ cos 𝛿 = 1]
So 𝛿 = 0, ±2𝜋, ±4𝜋, … ..
Which is the condition for constructive interference.
Between 0 < cos 𝛿 < 1; 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 < 𝐼 < 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 ; waves are out of phase.

Case 02:
Minimum irradiance occurs when cos 𝛿 = −1
So, 𝐼 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 − 2√𝐼1 𝐼2
And 𝛿 = ±𝜋, ±3𝜋, ±5𝜋 ….
Between −1 < cos 𝛿 < 0; 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝐼𝑚𝑖𝑛 < 𝐼 < 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 ; destructive interference.

• If the amplitudes of the waves at P are equal, then ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

𝐸01 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐸02 => √2𝐼1 = √2𝐼2

• ∴ 𝐼1 = 𝐼2 = 𝐼0 (𝑠𝑎𝑦) then 𝐼 = 𝐼0 + 𝐼0 + 2√𝐼0 𝐼0 cos 𝛿 = 2𝐼0 (1 + cos 𝛿)

𝛿
∴ 𝐼 = 4𝐼0 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 2

Then 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 4𝐼0

𝐼𝑚𝑖𝑛 =0

For Spherical waves:

For spherical waves emitted from S1 and S2

⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐸1 ( 𝑟1 , 𝑡) = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐸01 (𝑟1 )exp[𝑖(𝑘𝑟1 − 𝜔𝑡 +∈1 )]
⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐸2 ( 𝑟2 , 𝑡) = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐸02 (𝑟2 )exp[𝑖(𝑘𝑟2 − 𝜔𝑡 +∈2 )]
The terms r1 and r2 are the radii of the spherical wavefronts overlapping at P .
Phase differences,
𝛿 = 𝑘𝑟1 − 𝑘𝑟2 +∈1 −∈2
 𝛿 = 𝑘(𝑟1 − 𝑟2 ) + (∈1 −∈2 )
If the sources are of equal strength,
𝛿 1
 𝐼 = 4𝐼0 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 2 = 4𝐼0 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 2 [𝑘(𝑟1 − 𝑟2 ) + (∈1 −∈2 )]
𝛿
Irradiance maxima occurs when, 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 2 = 1
𝛿
 = 0, ±𝜋, ±2𝜋, … ..
2
𝛿
 = 𝑚𝜋
2

 𝛿 = 2 𝑚𝜋
 𝑘(𝑟1 − 𝑟2 ) + (∈1 −∈2 ) = 2 𝑚𝜋
2 𝑚𝜋+(∈2 −∈1 )
 𝑟1 − 𝑟2 = → condition for constructive interference.
𝑘
𝛿
Irradiance minima occurs when, 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 2 =0
𝛿 𝜋 3𝜋 5𝜋
= ± , ± , ± , … … ….
2 2 2 2
 𝛿 = (2 𝑚 + 1)𝜋
 𝑘(𝑟1 − 𝑟2 ) + (∈1 −∈2 ) = (2 𝑚 + 1)𝜋
(2 𝑚+1)𝜋+(∈2 −∈1 )
 𝑟1 − 𝑟2 = → condition for destructive interference
𝑘

If the waves are in same phase with the emitter, then, ∈1 =∈2
 ∈1 −∈2 = 0

2 𝑚𝜋
Maxima, 𝑟1 − 𝑟2 = 𝑘
=𝑚𝜆

(2 𝑚+1)𝜋
Minima, 𝑟1 − 𝑟2 = 𝑘