UNIT – VI

RAY AND WAVE OPTICS

WAVE OPTICS
WAVE FRONT: - A locus of a points where all the points have same phase of oscillation is
called wave front.

RAY: - A line perpendicular to wave front is called Ray.

Energy distributed per unit area per unit time INTENSITY α 1/Radius. A light wave is
created in the same manner as a stone is thrown is thrown in a still water a wave is created
which advance with crest and through. As the wave advance in all the direction the wave
becomes weaker because initially the total energy is distributed over a circle of small
circumference and later the same energy is distributed over a circle of large circumference.
As I α A2 so A α 1/r1/2 so amplitude decreases as wave advances.
Types of wave front: - Shape of wave front depends upon the source.
1) Spherical wave front: - If the source of a light is a point source, then the wave front
produce will be a spherical shape.
2) Cylindrical wave front: - When the source of light is linear in shape(slit).it produce
cylindrical wave front.
3) Plane Wave front: - A small portion of spherical and cylindrical wave front produce
from a distant object will appear like a plane wave front.

HUYGEN’S PRINCIPLE: - For explaining how the wave front propagates forward Huygens’s
made two assumptions.

1) Each point on the wave front acts as a new source of disturbance. Disturbance
produce at this wave front is called secondary wavelets and they travel with the
speed of light.
2) The new wave front is obtained by taking the forward envelope of secondary
wavelets.

COHERNT SOURCES: - The sources of light which emits light of same wavelength, frequency
and in same phase or having constant phase difference is called coherent source.
Of light we required at least two sources of light, but the two different light sources can’t be
coherent sources. These are done by taking a pair of coherent sources from a single source
of light. This is done by two methods.
1) By Division of Amplitude: -In this method amplitude of incident beam is divided into
two parts by partial reflection and refraction
2) By division of wave front: -In this method the incident wave front is divided in two
or more parts. In Young’s Double Slit Experiment incident wave front is break into
two wave fronts using two slits.

PRINCIPLE OF SUPERPOSITION: - According to these principle “The displacement due to a

number of waves acting simultaneously at a point in a medium is the vector of sum of the
displacement vectors due to each one of them acting separately.”

Let Y1,Y2,Y3 ........are the individual displacement due to each wave ,then the resultant
displacement Y = Y1+Y2+Y3+........+Yn.

If two waves of same frequency moving in the same direction with the same velocity, then
they will produce interference of waves. These principles are not applicable when
disturbance produce is very large.

The amplitude of the resulting wave is given by 𝑨 = √𝒂𝟐𝟏 + 𝒂𝟐𝟐 + 𝟐𝒂𝟏 𝒂𝟐 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝓

Where a1, a2 are the amplitudes of the superimposing waves and 𝝓 is the phase difference
between the two waves.

(1) If 𝝓 = 𝟎𝒐 (waves are in same phase)

𝑨 = √𝒂𝟐𝟏 + 𝒂𝟐𝟐 + 𝟐𝒂𝟏 𝒂𝟐 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝓 = √𝒂𝟐𝟏 + 𝒂𝟐𝟐 + 𝟐𝒂𝟏 𝒂𝟐 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟎𝒐

𝑨 = (𝒂𝟏 + 𝒂𝟐 ) so 𝑰 ∝ (𝒂𝟏 + 𝒂𝟐 )𝟐

This shows that when two waves superimpose in same phase the resultant amplitude and
the intensity increases.

(2) If 𝝓 = 𝟏𝟖𝟎𝒐 (waves are in opposite phase)

𝑨 = √𝒂𝟐𝟏 + 𝒂𝟐𝟐 + 𝟐𝒂𝟏 𝒂𝟐 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝓 = 𝑨 = √𝒂𝟐𝟏 + 𝒂𝟐𝟐 + 𝟐𝒂𝟏 𝒂𝟐 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟏𝟖𝟎𝒐

𝑨 = (𝒂𝟏 − 𝒂𝟐 ) so 𝑰 ∝ (𝒂𝟏 − 𝒂𝟐 )𝟐

This shows that when two waves superimpose in opposite phase the resultant amplitude
and the intensity decreases.

INTERFERENCE: - The formation of maximum intensity at some points and minimum

intensity at some other points by the superposition of two more identical waves moving in
the same direction is called interference of light.
Points where the intensity of light is maximum their constructive interference takes place
while the points where the intensity of light is minimum their destructive interference takes
place. Interference obeys the law of conservation of energy because the energy of points of
minimum intensity is transferred to the points of maximum intensity. Thus, there is only
redistribution of energy in the phenomenon of interference of light.

INTENSITY: - If a1 = a2 = a
Then 𝑨 = √𝒂𝟐 + 𝒂𝟐 + 𝟐𝒂𝟐 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝓 = √𝟐𝒂𝟐 (𝟏 + 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝓 )
𝐴2 = 𝟐𝒂𝟐 (𝟏 + 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝓 )
𝝓 𝝓
𝐴2 = 𝟐𝒂𝟐 (𝟏 + 𝟐𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐 𝟐 − 𝟏) = 𝟒𝒂𝟐 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐 𝟐
𝝓
𝑰 ∝ 𝟒𝒂𝟐 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐 𝟐

Constructive Interference: - For Constructive Interference intensity will be maximum

𝝓
this will be possible if 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐 𝟐 will be maximum.
𝝓
𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐 𝟐 = 𝟏
𝝓
𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝟐 = ±𝟏 = 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒏𝝅
𝝓
So 𝟐 = 𝒏𝝅 or 𝝓 = 𝟐𝒏𝝅 where n = 1,2,3,4…………
𝜆
𝑝𝑎𝑡ℎ 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 2𝜋 𝑥 𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝝀
𝚫= 𝟐𝝅
𝒙 𝟐𝒏𝝅 = 𝒏𝝀

So, if the phase difference between the two waves is 2n𝝅 and the path difference between
waves is 𝑛𝝀 then constructive interference takes place.
 Destructive Interference: - For destructive Interference intensity will be minimum this
𝝓
will be possible if 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐 𝟐 will be minimum.
𝝓
𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐 =𝟎
𝟐
𝝓 𝝅
𝒄𝒐𝒔 = 𝟎 = 𝒄𝒐𝒔 (𝟐𝒏 + 𝟏)
𝟐 𝟐
𝝓 𝝅
So 𝟐 = (𝟐𝒏 + 𝟏)
𝟐
or 𝝓 = (𝟐𝒏 + 𝟏)𝝅 where n = 1,2,3,4…………
𝜆
Path difference = 𝑥 𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒
2𝜋
𝝀 𝝀
𝚫= 𝒙 (𝟐𝒏 + 𝟏)𝝅 = (𝟐𝒏 + 𝟏)
𝟐𝝅 𝟐

So, if the phase difference between the two waves is (2n+1)𝝅 and the path difference
𝝀
between waves is (𝟐𝒏 + 𝟏) 𝟐 then destructive interference takes place.

YOUNGS DOUBLE SLIT EXPERIMENT: - In his experimental setup he uses sodium

lamp as a source of light (monochromatic) S. At 10 cm from the source he places two slits S1
and S2. Both S1 and S2 are 0.3 mm wide( 𝜔 ).The distance between the two slits S1 and S2 is 1
mm (d). A screen is placed at nearly 2 m (D).

Experimental arrangement is shown in figure.

Consider a point P on the screen at a distance Y from center O. If anyone slit is open then on
the screen uniform intensity of light is observed, but when both the slits are open, we get
alternate bright and dark fringes on the screen due to interference.
Waves coming from S1 and S 2 at point P travels different path so there is some path
difference between these two waves.

In ∆ S1PM1 S1P2 = M1P2 + M1S12

𝑑 2 𝑑2
= (𝑌 − ) + 𝐷2 = 𝑌 2 + − 𝑌𝑑 + 𝐷2 ---------------------(1)
2 4

In ∆ S2 PM2 S2P2 = M2P2 + M2S22

 𝑑 2 𝑑2
=(𝑌 + ) + 𝐷2 = 𝑌 2 + + 𝑌𝑑 + 𝐷2 ---------------------(1)
2 4

Subtract equation (1) from (2)

𝑑2 𝑑2
S2P2- S1P2 = 𝑌 2 + + 𝑌𝑑 + 𝐷2 − (𝑌 2 + − 𝑌𝑑 + 𝐷2 )
4 4
2
𝑑 2 2 2
𝑑2
=𝑌 + + 𝑌𝑑 + 𝐷 + 𝑌 − + 𝑌𝑑 − 𝐷2
4 4
= 2Yd
As d is very small so S2P= S1P= D
(S2P- S1P) + (S2P+ S1P) = 2Yd
2𝑦𝑑 𝒚𝒅
S2P- S1P = so the path difference =
2𝐷 𝑫

Position of bright fringe: -

For bright fringe path difference = n𝝀
𝒚𝒅
= 𝒏𝝀
𝑫
𝒏𝝀𝑫
𝒚=
𝒅
For n = 0, 𝒚 = 𝟎 we get the maxima at the center of screen
Position of dark fringe: -
𝝀
For dark fringe path difference = (𝟐𝒏 + 𝟏) 𝟐
𝒚𝒅 𝝀
= (𝟐𝒏 + 𝟏)
𝑫 𝟐
𝝀𝑫
𝒚 = (𝟐𝒏 + 𝟏)
𝟐𝒅
𝝀𝑫
For n = 0, then 𝒚 =
𝟐𝒅
Means we get the position of first dark fringe for n = 0

Fringe Width: - Distance between the two consecutive bright fringes is equal to the width
of dark fringe. 𝛽 = 𝑌𝑛 − 𝑌𝑛−1
𝑛𝜆𝐷 (𝑛−1) 𝜆𝐷 𝜆𝐷
𝛽= 𝑑
− 𝑑
= ( 𝑛 − 𝑛 + 1) 𝑑
𝝀𝑫
𝜷= 𝒅
Distance between the two consecutive dark fringes is equal to the width of bright fringe.
𝛽 = 𝑌𝑛 − 𝑌𝑛−1
𝜆𝐷 𝜆𝐷 𝜆𝐷
𝛽 = (2𝑛 + 1) 2𝑑 − (2(𝑛 − 1) + 1) 2𝑑 = (2𝑛 + 1 − 2𝑛 + 2 − 1)
𝑑
𝝀𝑫
𝜷= 𝒅
It shows that in the interference both the bright and dark fringes have equal width.
1) 𝜷 is directly proportional to the distance of the screen from the slits D, Wavelength 𝝀.
2) 𝜷 is inversely proportional to the distance between the slits d. If d is very large so 𝜷 is
very small which is very difficult to detected. So d must be very small to observe
interference clearly.
Intensity distribution with distance: -
All the bright spot has the same intensity I α 4a (maximum)
2

All the dark spot has the same intensity I = 0 (minimum)

CONDITION FOR SUSTAINED INTERFERANCE: -

1) The two sources must be coherent.
2) The light source should be monochromatic. Monochromatic source means a light source
which produce light of single wavelength.
3) Amplitude of both the waves must be nearly same. If the difference in amplitude is large,
then the difference in the intensity of bright and dark spot is very small. So, the distinction
between them is not possible.
4) Both the waves must travel along the same straight line.
5) Both the waves must be polarized in same plane.
INTERFERENCE AND LAW OF CONSERVATION OF ENERGY: -
In interference it was seen that energy is destroyed in destructive interference and created
in constructive interference, so law conservation of energy is violated, but these is not so.
The energy is only transferred from the region of destructive interference to the region of
constructive interference. so, there is only redistribution of energy in interference.
Consider the two waves of amplitude a then the intensity of each wave is I α a
2

Total energy = I + I = 2I α 4a
2

Amplitude of each bright spot = 2a

Amplitude of each dark spot = 0
2 2
Average intensity of bright and dark spot = 4a + 0/2 = 2a
So the total intensity of the two waves equal to the average intensity so there is no loss of
energy. Means interference obeys law of conservation of energy.
DIFFRACTION OF LIGHT-The phenomenon of bending of light round the corners and
enchrohment of light within the shadow of an opaque obstacle in called diffraction.

In other wards the deviation of light from its rectilinear path in called diffraction.
Diffraction is classified in to two categories.
(1) Fresnel diffraction – In Fresnel diffraction either the source of light or the screen or
both are at the finite distance from the obstacle. In Fresnel class the incident wave front
may be plane, spherical or cylindrical and in Fresnel diffraction no need of using lenses.
(2) Fraunhofer’s diffraction-In these class of diffraction both the source of light and
screen are at infinite distance from the obstacle. In this wave front incident wave front is
always a plane wave front and the lenses are required in these diffractions to focus the light
on screen, which is kept at the focal plane of convex lens.
DIFFRACTION THROUGH THE SINGLE SLIT:- Let a parallel beam of light is incident
normally on the slit AB then due to rectilinear propagation of light we should obtain the
bright image of slit, equal to the width of the slit, but the light gets diffracted through the
corners of the slit so we get a bright central band on the screen which is wider than the slit
and on the either side of central band alternate bright and dark band of decreasing intensity
is obtained.
Diffraction of light is explained based on Huygens’s wave theory, according to which each
point on the wave front incident on AB acts as a new source of light.
Formation of central maximum:- All the secondary wavelets produce from the
incident wave front on AB are in same phase and all these wavelets reach at point O after
covering equal distance, so they all reach at O in same phase and we obtain the maximum
intensity at O as shown in figure.

figure (a)
Path difference between extreme rays:- All the secondary wavelets on the slit AB
diffracted by an angle 𝜽 and reaches at the point P.All these wavelets start at same phase
but on reaching at point P they cover different distance so they meet at P at different phase.
As shown in figure. Path difference BN = d sin 𝜽

figure (b)
Formation of secondary minima: - Let the wave lets diffracted at an angle Ө1 reaches at the
point P produce first secondary minimum. This occurs when path difference between the
extreme wave lets is 𝜆 .Consider the slit AB is divided into two equal parts AC and CB such
that the path difference between the wavelets reaching at P from the position AC and CB is
𝜆/2. For each point in the portion AC there is corresponding point in the portion CB and path
difference between them is 𝜆/2. So, the intensity at P due to the two wavelets is zero. The
Condition for first minimum dsin 𝜽 1= 𝝀
𝝀 𝝀
sin 𝜽 1= 𝜽 1= (as 𝜽 1 is very small)
𝒅 𝒅
Second minimum;- The path difference between the two extreme wavelets is 2𝝀.Let AB is
divided into the four equal parts AC1,C 1C,CC 2,C 2B.They are diffracted by an angle .The
wavelets reaching at P from AC1 ,C 1C ,have a path difference of 𝝀/2 so they cancel each
other effect, similarly the effect of portion CC2,is cancel by the effect of portion C2B, and we
get second minimum. As shown in figure.
Condition dsin 𝜽 2 = 2 𝝀
𝟐𝝀 𝟐𝝀
sin 𝜽 2 = 𝒅
𝜽2= 𝒅
𝒏𝝀
Similarly, for nth minimum 𝜽n= 𝒅
(where n = 1, 2, 3.......)

Figure(c) figure (d)

Formation of secondary maxima: -
’
First maxima:- Let the wavelet diffracted at an angle 𝜽 1 and they reaches at then point P
having the path difference between the extreme wavelets is 3𝝀/2 .The distance between
AB is divided into three equal parts AC ,CC1 and C1B. The path difference between the
wavelets reaching at P from portion AC and CC1 is 𝝀/2, so they cancel each other effect, as
dsin 𝜽 1’ =
𝟑𝝀
shown in figure.
𝟐
sin 𝜽 1’= 𝟐𝒅 𝜽 1’ =
𝟑𝝀 𝟑𝝀
𝟐𝒅
second maxima:- Let the wavelet diffracted at an angle 𝜽 2’ path difference between the
two extreme wavelets in 5λ/2 .the distance AB in divided in to 5 equal parts AC1 , C1C2
,C2C3, C3C4 ,and C4B.The wavelets from first second portion cancel each other effect because
they have both difference of 𝝀/2 similarly third and fourth portion cancel each other effect
. So, the intensity is observed at point P only because of fifth portion. As show in figure.
𝟓𝝀
Condition dsin 𝜽’2=
𝟐
𝟓𝝀 𝟓𝝀
sin 𝜽’2 = 𝟐𝒅 or 𝜽’2 =
𝟐𝒅
𝜽’n = (𝟐𝒏 + 𝟏) 𝟐𝒅 (n=1,2,3,4, ........)
𝝀
Similarly, for nth maxima condition is

Figure (e) figure (f)

Width of maxima: - let Yn be the distance of nth minimum from O then

𝒀 𝒏𝝀
𝜃𝑛 = 𝑫𝒏 = 𝒅
𝑛𝐷𝜆
Distance of minimum nth from center =
𝑑
𝜆𝐷
Distance of first minima =
𝑑
𝟐𝝀𝑫
Width of central maxima =
𝒅

If lense is very close to slit, then D ~ ƒ (focal length of lens)

𝟐𝝀𝒇
Width of central maxima =
𝒅
(1) Width of central maximum in double of secondary maximum.
(2) If slit width d decrease then secondary maxima get wider and vice versa.
=> To see diffraction pattern d should be small.
=> Diffraction pattern is symmetrically observed on both side of O.
=> Central maximum has maximum intensity because it receives wavelets from all parts in
same phase.
=> Secondary maximum receives wavelets from only a part of slit and rest of the parts
cancel each other effect.
 “Means on each successive maxima Intensity decreases.”
Figure shows the intensity pattern of diffraction.