WAVE OPTICS

Wave optics is the branch of physics it studies interference diffraction,

polarization and other phenomena for which ray approximation of geometric
optics is not valid.
Wave front
The locus of points having same phase is called wave front.

Huygens principle
Each point on a wave front is a source of secondary waves which adds up to
give the wave front at a later time.
Coherent waves
If two waves are of same frequency and the phase difference between them
does not change with time.
Such waves are called Coherent waves. Interference pattern produced by
Coherent waves can be seen by us on the screen.

Incoherent waves
If two waves are of same frequency and the phase difference between them
changes rapidly with time, the waves are called incoherent waves.
Interference pattern produced by incoherent waves can’t be seen by us on the
screen because of rapid changes in the phase.
Interference of light
When two or more coherent light waves superpose, the resultant light
intensity in the region varies to form bright and dark fringes. This,
phenomena called Interference of light.

Expression for intensity at a point due interference of light

Consider two rays are given by
y1 = a cos ωt, y2 = a cos (ωt + Φ)
Where ‘a’ is amplitude
‘ω’ angular frequency and ‘Φ’ the phase difference between the
waves.
From the principle of superposition of the rays the resultant
displacement is
𝚽 𝚽
y = y1 + y2 = a [cos ωt + cos (ωt + Φ)] = 2a cos ( 𝟐 )cos(𝛚 + 𝟐 )
 𝚽
Here, 2a cos ( 𝟐 ) represents the amplitude of the resultant wave at the point.
The intensity of resultant wave is

𝜱
I = 4Iocos2 ( 𝟐 )

Where I o is the intensity of each wave.

Conditions for maximum intensities
The maximum value of resultant intensity
𝚽
I max = 4I o when cos 2( 𝟐 ) = 1

Thus, the condition for maximum intensity at Φ the point is

Φ = 0, 2π, ±4π,……
Conditions for minimum/zero intensities
The minimum value of resultant intensity
𝚽
I min =0 When cos 2 ( 𝟐 )= 0
Thus, the condition for minimum intensity at the point is
Φ = ±π, ±3π, ±5π, …...
Theory of constructive and destructive interferences
Consider two Coherent sources S1 and S2 which give waves of angular
frequency ‘ω’, wavelength ‘λ’ and amplitude ‘a’.
If a point ‘P’ is equidistant from S1 and S2, the path difference between the
distances travelled by the waves is zero and
S1P ̴ S2P = 0 ⟹ S1P = S2P
The displacements of the waves from the sources are
y1 = a cosωt and y2 = a cos ωt
 The resultant displacement at P is given by
y = y1 + y2 = 2a cos ωt
Thus, the amplitude gets doubled ‘2a’ and the resultant intensity becomes 4
times.
i.e., I = 4I o
Where I o is the intensity of each wave.
Similarly, the resultant intensity becomes maximum for the path differences
given by
S1P - S2P = nλ (n = 0, 1, 2, 3,….)
This is called constructive interference.
Here crest of one wave adds to crest of another to get the amplitude doubled.
If a point P is such that the path difference between the distances travelled
𝛌
by the waves is 𝟐 and
𝛌
S1P - S2P = 𝟐
𝛌
The path difference of 𝟐 gives a phase difference of π. The displacements
of the waves from the sources S1 and S2 are
y1 =a cos ωt and y2 = a cos (ωt - π) = - a cos ωt
The resultant displacement at P is given by
y = y1 + y2 ⇒ y = a cos ωt – a cos ωt = 0
𝛌
Similarly, the resultant intensity becomes zero for the path difference of
𝟐
and its multiples.
𝟏
S1P- S2P = (𝒏 + 𝟐) where n = 0,1,2, …
This is called destructive Interference.
Here, crest of one wave adds to trough of another to get the zero
amplitude and zero intensity.
Young’s Experiment
Young’s experiment consists of an opaque sheet provided with
two pin holes S1 and S2 separated by a very small distance ‘d’. When these
holes are illuminated by bright light coming from a single slit S, the pin
holes S1 and S2 act as coherent sources. The spherical wave fronts emanating
from S1 and S2 will produce interference fringes on the screen GG 1, kept at a
distance ‘D’ from the slits.
The bright fringe corresponds to a point on the screen for a path difference
of
S1P ~ S 2P = nλ (n = 0, 1, 2, 3, ….)
The dark fringe corresponds to a point on the screen for a path difference of
𝟏
S1P ~ S2P = (𝐧 + ) 𝛌 (n = 0, 1, 2, 3, ….)
𝟐
Expression for fringe width:
From figure,
𝐝 𝟐 𝐝 𝟐
(S2P)2 – (S1P)2 = [ 𝐃𝟐 + (𝐱 + 𝟐) ] − [𝐃𝟐 + (𝐱 − 𝟐) ]

(S2P)2 – (S1P)2 = 2xd

where S1S2 = d and OP = x
𝟐𝐱𝐝
S2P – S1P = 𝐒
𝟏 𝐏+𝐒𝟐 𝐏

‘x’ and ‘d’ are very small compared to ‘D’

𝟐𝐱𝐝 𝐱𝐝
S2P + S 1P ≈ 2D ⟹ S2P – S1P = ⟹ S2P – S1P =
𝟐𝐃 𝐃
(𝐒𝟏 𝐏−𝐒𝟐 𝐏)𝐃
x= 𝐝
Condition for bright band is
S1P ∼ S2P = nλ (n = 0,1,2,3, ….)
∴ nth bright band distance on screen is given by
𝐧𝛌𝐃
xn =
𝐝
Similarly, nth dark band is given by
𝟏 𝛌𝐃
xn = (𝐧 + 𝟐) 𝐝
Thus, bright and dark fingers are equally spaced. The distance between two
consecutive bright or dark fingers is called fringe width (ꞵ).
𝛌𝐃
ꞵ = xn+1 – xn = (n+1-n) 𝐝
Thus, the expression for fringe width is
𝛌𝐃
ꞵ= 𝐝

Where ‘𝛌’ is wavelength, ‘D’ is the distance between slits and screen and
‘d’ is the distance between the coherent slits S 1, S2.
Diffraction
The phenomena of bending of light round the sharp corners of an
obstacle placed in the path of light is called Diffraction of light.
Diffraction can be explained by using Huygens principle. When a wave
front is partially obstructed, only the wavelets from the exposed parts
superpose and produce diffraction pattern of bright and dark fringes.
 Principle of conservation of energy in Interference and Diffraction
The principle of conservation of energy holds good for both
interference and diffraction.
In interference and diffraction, patterns of bright and dark fringes
are formed. Here the principle of conservation of energy holds good for
patterns of bright and dark fringes of interference and diffraction.
In interference and diffraction, the light energy is distributed. If it reduces in
one region, producing a dark fringe it increases in another region, producing
bright fringe. Thus, there is no gain or loss of energy. Hence, total energy
remains constant.
Fresnel distance
The distance travelled by a beam of light before it spread out die to diffraction
is called Fresnel distance.
ZF = a 2/ 𝛌
Where ‘a’ is the width of the light beam and ‘𝛌’ is its wavelength.
Validity of Ray optics
Ray optics is valid only when the wavelength of light (𝛌) tends to zero (or)
when Fresnel distance a 2/ 𝛌 tends to infinity.
Polarization of light
Restricting the transverse vibrations of light waves to one plane is
called polarization of light.
Ordinary light, called unpolarized light becomes plane polarized
when it passes through a polaroid or polarizer.

Malus’ law
When a plane polarized light of intensity I 0 is at an angle ϴ with the
pass axis of an analyzer, the intensity of transmitted light through the
analyzer is given by
I = I 0 cos 2 ϴ
 Resolving power of eye
1. It is the ability of eye to see the fine details in the viewed objects.
To determine the resolving power of eye
2. Let us take a pattern of black strips of equal width each 5mm separated
by white strips of increasing width from left to right as shown in the figure
and paste it on a wall of the room.

3. Now, let us watch the pattern with eye. By moving our eye (or) closer to
the wall, we have to find the position where we can just see some two black
strips as separate strips. All the black strips to the left of this strip would
merge into one another and would not be distinguishable.
4. On the other hand, the black strips on the right of this would be more
and more clearly visible. If ‘d’ is the width of the white strip which separates
the two regions and ‘D’ is the distance between the eye and the wall, the
𝐝
resolving power of the eye is given by 𝐃.
Doppler effect in light
To an observer on the earth the light from a star moving towards him
appears with high frequency or less wavelength. Similarly, the apparent
wavelength is high or less frequency in the case of star moving away from
him this change in apparent frequency or wavelength of light due to relative
motion of the source is called Doppler effect in light.
 Differences between Red shift and Blue shift
Red shift
According to Doppler effect,
when a star goes away from the
observer on the earth, its light
appears to him with higher
wavelength. As a result, the
wavelength in the middle of the
visible region of the spectrum
(VIBGYOR) moves towards the
red end of the spectrum. This is
called Red shift.
Blue shift
According to Doppler effect,
when a star moves towards the
observer on the earth, its light
appears to him with less
wavelength. As a result, the
wavelength in the middle of the
visible region of the spectrum
(VIBGYOR) moves towards the
violet or blue end of the spectrum.
This is called Blue shift.
Problems
1. Two slits are made 1mm apart and this screen is placed 1m away. What
is the fringe separation when bluegreen light of wavelength 500 nm is
used?
d = 1mm = 1 X 10 -3m
D = 1m
𝛌 = 500nm = 500 X 10-9m = 5 X 10-7m
𝑫𝝀
ꞵ=
𝒅
= 1 X 5 X 10-7/1 X 10-3
= 5 X 10-4m
= 5 X 10-1mm
= 0.5mm

2. For what distance is ray optics a good approximation when the aperture
is 3mm wide and the wavelength is 500nm?
a = 3mm = 3 X 10-3m
𝛌 = 500nm = 500 X 10-9m = 5 X 10-7m
ZF = a 2/ 𝛌
= (3 X 10-3)2/5 X 10-7
= 18m