WAVE OPTICS

• INTERFERENCE • What is Interference

• DIFFRACTION • Phenomenon of
Interference (Principle of
• POLARISATION superposition)
• Discovery of Interference
What is Intensity of Light ?
of Light
Intensity is the amount of • Condition for
energy that arrives per unit Interference
area, per unit time. The
more intense the light • Coherence and Phase
reaching us is, the difference
“brighter” the light appears • Theory of Interference of
to be.
Light
• Classification of
Interference
INTRODUCTION
INTERFERENCE
Interference is the phenomenon in which two waves superpose to form the
resultant wave of the lower, higher or same amplitude. The most commonly
seen interference is the optical interference or light interference. ... This means
that light waves coming out of a source do not have a constant amplitude, frequency
or phase.
Coherent Source and its Example
Two beams of light are coherent when the phase difference between their waves is
constant;
Laser light is an example of coherent source of light. The light emitted by the
laser light has the same frequency and phase.
Sound waves are another example of coherent sources. The electrical signals from the
sound waves travel with the same frequency and phase.
They are non coherent if there is a random or changing phase relationship.
Example;. two light bulbs
Production of Coherent sources
1. Young’s double slit
2. Liyod’s Mirror
3. Fresnal’ double Mirror
4. Fresnel’s biprism
5. Michelson’s Interferometer
 Superposition Principle
• The superposition principle states that when two or more waves overlap in
space, the resultant disturbance is equal to the algebraic sum of the
individual disturbances.
The interaction of waves with other waves is called wave interference

According to the phase difference in superimposing waves, interference is divided

into two categories as follows

Y1

Y2

Waves are in phase produce Waves are in antiphase produce

constructive interference Destructive Interference
 Types of Superposition of Waves

Constructive interference occurs when
the crests, or highest points, of one
wave overlap the crests of the other
wave. As the waves pass through each
other, the crests combine to produce a
wave with greater amplitude.
Destructive interference occurs when the crests
of one wave overlap the troughs, or lowest points,
of another wave. As the waves pass through each
other, the crests and troughs cancel each other
out to produce a wave with zero amplitude.
 Phase difference and Path difference
The phase difference is Path difference is the difference in
the difference in the phase angle of the path travelled by the two waves.
the two waves.

The relation between phase difference and

path difference is direct. They are directly
proportional to each other.

The relation between

phase difference and Δxλ=Δϕ2π No units
path difference

Phase Difference Δϕ=2πΔxλ Radian or degree

Path Difference Δx=λ2πΔϕ meter

Relation between Phase difference and Path difference
 Discovery of Interference of Light
Young's original double-slit experiments were in fact the first to demonstrate the
phenomenon of interference.
 Condition for Interference
1. Condition for sustained interference:
i. The sources must be coherent.
ii. The two interfering sources should emit light of same
frequency or wavelength.
2. Condition for Observation:
i. Separation between two coherent sources should be as small as
posssible.
ii. Dist. Of the screen from two sources should e quite large.

3. Condition for good contrast:

i Amplitude of the two interfering sources should be equal
Ii The two coherent sources must be narrow.
Iii The two sources should give monochromatic light.
1. Interference produced by the division of
wavefront Ex: Youngs double slit Expt., Fresnels
Biprism
2. Interference produced by the division of
Amplitude Ex: Newtons ring Expt, Michelson
Interferometer
 1. Derivation of Young’s Double Slit Experiment
Consider a monochromatic light source ‘s’ kept at a considerable distance from
two slits s1 and s2. S is equidistant from s1 and s2. s1 and s2 behave as two
coherent sources, as both bring derived from S.
The light passes through these slits and falls on a screen which is at a distance
‘D’ from the position of slits s1 and s2. ‘d’ be the separation between two slits.
If s1 is open and s2 is closed, the screen opposite to s1 is closed, only the
screen opposite to s2 is illuminated. The interference patterns appear only
when both slits s1 and s2 are open.
Resultant Intensity in Interference of Two Waves
Resultant Intensity in Interference of Two Waves contd.
 Fringe width
calculation

We already know that the path difference

△x=nλ for bright fringes and
△x=(2n+1)×λ/2 for dark fringes
Suppose S1​A is the perpendicular from S1​ to S2​P.
Suppose, D=OB = seperation between slits and the screen,
d = seperation between the slits
and D>>d.
Under the above approximation S1​P and S2​P are nearly parallel and hence S1​A is
perpendicular to S2​P and OP.
AS S1​S2​ is perpendicular to OB and we have
∠S2​S1​A=∠POB=θ
This is a small angle as D>>d.
The path difference is
△x=PS2​−PS1​≈PS2​−PA = S2​A = dsinθ≈dtanθ = yd/D​
The phase difference is = 2π/λ(yd/D)
The centers of the bright fringes are obtained at distances y from the point B,
where
△x (path diff) =yd/D​ = nλ, y = nλD/d
n = 0, 1,2,3
yn= nλD/d​ i.e., n = 1, y1 =λD/d; n = 2, y2 =2λD/d; n =3, y3 =3λD/d;

y2 –y1= 3λD/d - 2λD/d = λD/d ( Distance between two consecutive dark/bright

fringes is always same.)
Similarly we can show for dark fringes
△x (path diff) =yd/D​ = (2n+1)λ/2, y = (2n+1)λD/2d
n = 0, y0 =λD/2d;
n = 1, y1 = 3λD/2d
n = 2, y2= 5λD/2d
n = 3, y3= 7λD/2d
Fringe width (ω)=λD/d Angular Fring width (θ) = λ/d
1. Fringe width is directly proportional to the wavelength of light . ω α λ
2. Fringe width is directly proportional to the distance of the screen from the
two sources. ω α D
3. Fringe width is inversely proportional to the separation between two
coherent sources. ω α 1/d
 Fresnel’s Biprism

The Biprism is a device to obtain two coherent sources to produce sustained interference. It
is a combination of two prisms of very small refracting angles placed base to base . It is
construced as a single prism with one of its angle about 179҆▫ and the other two about 30▫
each. Monochromatic light through a narrow slit S falls on biprism , which divides it into two
components

A
S1
B

C
S2
D
 Thin Film Interference
Soft reflection:
Reflects off a
medium with a lower
refraction index, as a
result, no phase shift
is observed.

Hard reflection:
Reflects off a
medium with a
higher refraction
index, as a result, a
phase shift is
observed of λ/2
 Condition for maxima and minima
Path diff =path BCD in film – path BN in air Transmitt Light:
= µ(BC+CD)-BN Path diff between CT1 and ET2
BC = CD= CM/cosr = t/cosr
= µ(CD+DE) - CK
BN = BD sin i
= (BM + MD)sin i
= 2µt cos r ( no phase change, light is coming
= (CM tan r + CM tan r)sin i= 2t tan r sin i from denser to rarer medium)
= (µsin r)2t sin r/cos r So effective path diff = 2µt cos r
=2µt sin2r/cos r Condition for Maxima and Minima in
Therefore path diff = µ(t/cos r + t/cos r) - 2µt sin r/cos r Transmitted Light
= 2µt cos r For constructive interference: (Bright fringe)
since the ray BR1 suffers reflection at the surface of a
2µt cos r = nλ ;n = 0, 1, 2, 3
denser medium so it undergoes a
phase change of π or path diff of λ/2.
For destructive interference: (dark fringe)
So effective path diff between rays BR1 and DR2 2µt cos r = (2n - 1)λ/2 ;n = 0, 1, 2, 3
= 2µt cos r + λ/2
Condition for Maxima and Minima in Reflected Light The conditions for maxima and minima in
For constructive interference: (Bright fringe) the Reflected light are just the reverse of
2µt cos r + λ/2 = nλ n = 0, 1, 2, 3 those in the Transmitted light . We can say
Reflected and Transmitted Interference
Or, 2µt cos r = (2n – 1)λ/2
For destructive interference: (dark fringe)
pattern are complementory.
2µt cos r + λ/2 = (2n + 1)λ/2 n = 0, 1, 2, 3

Or, 2µt cos r = nλ

 Interference produced by the division of amplitude

1. Newton’s ring

If the ray interfere there are two

constructive and destructive
interference present in
interference pattern i.e. for normal
incidence cos r = 1 and for air film
µ = 1.
Constructive interference
2t = (2m+1)λ/2
•Destructive interference
2t = mλ
 Calculation of diameter for a Bright and Dark Ring
A plano-convex lens LL’ placed on a glass plate. Let the radius of curvature of lens is R and the r is
the radius of Newton’s ring; is the thickness of the air film.
The path difference is defined
as
2µtcosq + λ/2=nλ
If µ = 1 for air film and q=0 for normal incidence
2t + λ/2=nλ
For bright ring
2t = (2n-1)λ/2 (1)
For dark ring
2t=nλ (2)
In the Triangle (CAB); according to Pythagoras theorem
CB2 = AC2 + AB2
R2 = (R-t)2 + r2 (t2 <<< neglect)
r2 = 2Rt
2t = r2/ R
t = r2/ 2R (3)
For diameter of bright ring;
from equation (1)
2t + λ/2=nλ
Putting value of t from equation (3)
2 x r2/ 2R = (2n-1)λ/2
r2 = R x (2n-1)λ/2
the diameter is D=2r then So, the diameter of bright ring is directly
D2/4 = R x (2n-1)λ/2 proportional to the root of the (2n-1) odd
Newton ring experiments natural number.
For diameter of Dark ring; from equation (2)
2t=nλ
2r2/ 2R = nλ
r2 = nλR
D2 = 4nλR
So the diameter of the dark ring is directly
proportional to the root of the natural
number.

Diameter of dark rings

are proportional to the
square root of natural
numbers.
Michelson Interferometer
 Visibility of Fringes
Types of fringes
1. Circular fringes In the case of Michelson interferometer ,the intensity is
2. Localised fringes given by
3. White fringes I = 4a2cos2 (Φ/2),
Here
Φ = 2π/λ(2d cos θ)
Φ = phase diff
2d cos θ = Path diff

The visibility fringes of a Michelson interferometer is

V = I max – I min/Imax + Imin
For monochromatic light, Imim = 0, V = I
The minimum visibility will be
Vmin = a12 – a22/a12 + a22

Applications:
1. Determination of wavelength of monocromatic light.
2. Difference between two wavwlengths or resolution of spectral lines.
3. Determination of thickness of a thin transparent sheet.
t = λN/2(µ - 1)
It is defined as the bending of waves around the corners of an obstacle or
through an aperture into the region of geometrical shadow of the
obstacle/aperture. There are to types of diffraction;
1 Fresnel’ diffraction
2. Fraunhoffer’ diffraction
What is Zone Plate explain how it behaves like a converging lens?
A zone plate is a device used to focus light or other things exhibiting wave character. Unlike
lenses or curved mirrors, zone plates use diffraction instead of refraction or reflection.
Based on analysis by French physicist Augustin-Jean Fresnel, they are sometimes called
Fresnel zone plates in his honor.
A zone plate is used for focusing light, like a lens. However, light through a lens undergoes
refraction but light through a zone plate undergoes diffraction. This is based on the principle
of Fresnel Lenses - and so is known as Fresnel Zone Plate.

1. 𝑟𝑛 ∝ 𝑛
πλ𝑢𝑣
2. an = 𝑢−𝑣

𝑟𝑛2
3. fn = 𝑛λ
Similarities between zone plate and convex lens
Both Zone plate acts a convex lens .
Both are having chromatic aberration while focusing.
The relation between conjugate distances are similar.
dissimilarities between zone plate and convex lens
a) The zone plate works by diffraction and the lens works by refraction
b) The image produced by a lens is very intense where as the image produced by
the zone plate not intense.
c) The zone plate has an array of focal lengths ( N numbers) where as a convex
lens has a single focal point.
d) The focal length of a convex lens directly proportional to the wavelength where
as the focal length of the zone plate inversely proportional to wavelength.
e) There is no time delay when light is passing through one point to another in
the convex lens but there is a time delay as light passes from one period to other
in zone plate.
1. In double slit diffraction pattern consists
of a equally spaced interference
maxima and minima with the central
maximum .
2
𝑠𝑖𝑛 α
2. Intensity I= 𝑅2 =4 𝐼02 α2 cos2β

3. On increasing the slit width the central

peak will become sharper but the fringe
spacing remains unchanged.
•Resulting pattern is the sum of the waves from every point in a slit.

With continous distribution of source points, it is an integral over position of a point in

a slit y If the center of a slit has the coordinate y = 0 and the width of the slit is a,
then y varies from -a/2 to a/2

Eθ =Amplitude for θ = 0
π𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛θ
Put = α (It means α depends on angle of scattering θ and
λ
gives intensity at different point for different value of θ)
E = Eθ sin α/α cos (kr – ωt)
𝑠𝑖𝑛 ∝ 2
Resultant Amplitude( R) = Eθ sin α/α
𝐼 = 𝐼θ
Resultant intensity at P is given by I= 𝑅2
∝2
Position of Central Maxima
If the light from the slit will converge at ‘o’, since the incident wave at AB is in
phase, and they travel equal distance to converge the light at ‘o’. Hence the
position of ‘o’ is always maximum intensity.

π𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛θ 𝑠𝑖𝑛∝
•For the central point O on the screen, α = = 0, ( ∝ = 1)
λ
•The main maxima of intensity is at sin θ = θ or θ = 0 (zero divide by zero
gives value one)

Position of Minima
𝑠𝑖𝑛∝
The intensity is minimum when ( = 0)
∝
or sin α = 0 (but α ≠ 0)
α =±𝑚𝜋
m = 1,2,3,4…….except 0 (gives the direction of the first, second,
third ….. Minima )
π𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛θ
As α =
λ
π𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛θ
=±𝑚𝜋
λ
a sinθ = =±𝑚λ
 Fraunhofer diffraction by two slits
1. Calculation of the diffraction pattern for light diffracted by two slits .
2. Properties of diffraction pattern for light diffracted by two slits .
3. Missing orders” in diffraction pattern produced by two slits.

Theory: The double slits have been represented as A1B1 and A2B2 in Fig. The slits are narrow
and rectangular in shape. The plane of the slits are perpendicular to plane of the paper. Let the
width of both the slits be equal and it is ‘e’ and they are separated by opaque length ‘b’. A
monochromatic plane wave front of wave length ‘λ’ is incident normally on both the slits.
Every point on the wave front in the slits will act as a source of secondary wavelets. The
secondary wavelets travelling in the direction of OP0 are brought to focus at screen.
Suppose each slit diffracts the beam in direction
making an angle θ with the direction of the
incident beam.
A𝑠𝑖𝑛∝ ߨ𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
Resultant amplitude = ∝ where ∝ = λ
Therefore Resultant amplitude at point P on the
screen will be result of interference between two
A𝑠𝑖𝑛∝
waves of same amplitude . And having a
∝
phase difference ∅
Resultant intensity at P is given by

Resultant intensity depends upon two factor:

𝑠𝑖𝑛2∝
1 2 This value gives diffraction pattern due to each individual slit and gives a central
∝
maximum in the direction θ = 0 having alternately minima and maxima of decreasing
intensity.
2 𝑐𝑜𝑠2β gives interference pattern due to diffracted light waves from the two slit.
 Cos2 β in the intensity pattern gives a set of dark and bright fringes .

Effect of increasing the slit width: the central peak will become sharper but the fringe spacing
remains unchanged. Hence less interference maxima fall within the central diffraction
maximum..
Effect of increasing the distance between slits: On increasing the separation between slit , the
fringes become closer together but the envelope of the pattern remains unchanged .Hence
more interference maxima fall within the central envelope.
Absent Orders: For certain values of d, certain interference maxima become absent from the
pattern
Direction of interference maxima = (e+d) sin θ = nλ 1
Direction of diffraction minima = e sin θ = mλ 2
If the values of e and d are such that both the equations are satisfied for the same value of θ ,
then a certain interference maximum will overlap the diffraction minimum and hence the
spectrum order will be missing (absent). Dividing equation 1 by 2, we get, n = 2m
If m = 1, 2, 3 etc n = 2, 4, 6 etc
This means that the 2, 4, 6 orders of interference maxima will be missing in the diffraction
patteren. The central diffraction maxima will have three interference maxima
If d = 2e (putting this value in equ 1 and 2)
n = 3m, If m = 1, 2, 3 etc n = 3, 6, 9 etc
This means that 3, 6, 9 orders of interference maxima will be missing in the diffraction pattern.
On both sides of the central maximum the no of interference maximum is 2 and hence there will
be five interference maxima in the central diffraction maximum.
 Plane Transmission grating
The plane transmission grating is a plane sheet of transparent material on which
opaque rulings are made with a fine diamond pointer. The modern commercial form
of grating contains about 6000 lines per centimetre. A grating separates polychromatic
(or multiple wavelength) light into its component wavelengths by diffraction

The resolving power of a grating is a measure of its ability to spatially separate

two wavelengths. It is determined by applying the Rayleigh criteria to
the diffraction maxima; two wavelengths are resolvable when the maxima of one
wavelength coincides with the minima of the second wavelength.

The resolving power (R) is defined by R = λ/∆λ = nN, where ∆λ is the resolvable
wavelength difference, n is the diffraction order, and N is the number of grooves
illuminated.
 Formation of Spectra with Grating
Important characteristics of grating spectra:
1) Spectra of different orders are situated
symmetrically on both sides of zero order.
2) Spectral lines are almost straight and quite
sharp.
3) Spectral colours are in the order from Violet to
Red.
4) Spectral lines are more dispersed as we go to
higher orders.
5) Most of the incident intensity goes to zero
order and rest is distributed among the other
orders.
The principle maxima in a grating are formed in
direction given by
where (e + d ) is the grating element, ‘n’ the order of
the maxima and the wavelength of the incident
light.
1) For a given wavelength the angle of
diffraction is different for principal maxima of
different orders.
2) For white light and for a particular order n, the
light of different wavelengths will be diffracted in
different directions.
The longer the wavelength, greater is the angle of
diffraction. So in each order, we will get the spectra
having as many lines as the wavelength in the light
source.
At centre (n = 0, zero order) gives the
maxima of all wavelengths. So here different
wavelengths coincide to form the central image of
the same colour as that the light source.
Similarly the principal maxima of all wavelengths
corresponding to n = 1 will form the first order
spectrum, the principal maxima of all wavelengths
corresponding to n = 2, will form the second order
spectrum and so on.
Absent spectrum with a diffraction grating:
Sometimes it happens that the first order spectrum is clearly visible, second order is not visible
and third order is again visible, i.e., the second order is absent, and so on. This happens when
for a given angle of diffraction q , the path difference between the diffracted rays from the two
extreme ends of one slit is equal to an integral multiple of l . Suppose the path diffrerence
is l , then each slit can be considered to be made up of two halves, the path difference
between the secondary waves from the corresponding points in the two halves will be l / 2
. Now they will cancel one another resulting zero intensity.

We know that, in case of a grating the principal maxima are obtained in the directions given by

Also, in case of a single slit, the minima are obtained in the directions given by

If both the conditions are satisfied simultaneously, a particular maximum of order n will be missing
in the grating spectrum. Dividing above equations we have

which is the condition of absent spectra. If the width of the ruling is equal to the width of
the slit, the second order spectrum will be missed.
 λ
= 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑜𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔
Δλ
Thus the resolving power of grating is equal to the product of the total no of ruling on the gra
ting and the order of the spectrum. This says that the no. of lines per cm of grating should be
larger in order to increse its resolving power.
 The Rayleigh Criterion
The Rayleigh criterion is the generally accepted criterion for the minimum resolvable detail -
the imaging process is said to be diffraction-limited when the first diffraction minimum of the
image of one source point coincides with the maximum of another
dθ = angular separation between the two lines having
difference dλ in the wavelength
Observations:
1. The dispersive power is directly proportional to the order of
diffraction n.
2. The dispersive power is inversely proportional to the grating
element (a+b). This means dispersive power is directly
proportional to no. of lines per cm of grating.Therefore
angular dispersive power of two given lines is greater with a
gratig having large no. of lines per cm.
3. The dispersive power is inversely proportional to cos θ. Thus
if the angle of diffraction θ = 0 degree, cos θ = 1 and hence
angular dispersion is minimum.
1. Find the expression for the resultant Intensity.
2. What are the factors on which fringe width of Interference depend?
3. What are the condition for (a) Sustained Interference (b) Observation on Interference(c)
good contrast in Interference.
4. Why two independent sources of light of same wavelength cannot show interference?
5. State the Basic condition for observing the phenomenon of Interference of light?
6. Show that the film which appears bright in reflected light appears dark in transmitted light
. Deduce the necessary condition.
7. Why Newton’s ring are circular?
8. Describe the feature od double slit Fraunhofer diffraction pattern.
9. Show that the formation Interference fringes is in accordance of law of conservation of
energy.
10. How does the Interference pattern by reflection in thin film diffef from that of refraction?
11.Why do we see colours when white light falls on a thin film of transparent medium?
12. In what respect a zone plate is similar or differ from a convex lens.
13. What is a diffracting grating?
14. What do you mean by Resolving power of a grating?
15. What is the advantage of increasing the no. of lines in a grating?
16. What are the condition of constructive and destructive Interference?
17. What are the difference between single and double slit diffraction pattern?
18. Calculate the separation between two consecutive bright and dark bands?
19. Explain the images formed by Michelson’s interferometer.
20. On what factors does the dispersive power of a grating depend?