Nuclear physics

* Nuclear model:
- The atom smallest building unit in the matter.
- It consists of central nucleus contains positive
protons & neutral neutron.
- Negative charged particles called electrons
orbiting the nucleus in a specific orbits or shells.
- The atom is neutral, because the number of
+ve protons = number of –ve electrons.

* Nucleon number (Mass number) "A" :

"Is the sum of protons and neutrons inside nucleus"
* Atomic number (Proton number) "Z":
"Is the number of protons inside nucleus"
N.B:
- Nucleus is positively charged.
- Number of Neutrons = nucleon number – proton number.
A
Z X
- A is the nucleon number, Z the atomic number and X the symbol of the element.

* Isotopes of an element:
Different forms of the same element having the same atomic number but different mass
numbers due to the difference in the number of neutrons in each of them.
16 17 18 1 2 3
8 O O O 8 8 1 H H H
1 1

- The greater the number of neutrons, the less stability of the isotope.
- The unstable nucleus will decay and emit radioactivity.
- Particles or waves which are emitted from a nucleus during decay are called radiations
- Radioactive nuclei are also called radioactive isotopes.
- After the decay, the nucleus will have changed into a more stable form.
- The atomic number will have changed and a new element is formed.
* Types of radiations:
4
1st Alpha particle α ( He ):
2
- Is the same as the nucleus of a helium nucleus, It consists of 2 protons and 2 neutrons.
- It has by far the most mass of the three types of radiation.
- It is the most likely to collide with other atoms which means that, it has the least
penetrating ability and are easily absorbed by paper, skin or a few centimeters of air.
- Alpha particles are the most ionising of the three types of radiation.
- Alpha particles are likely to be emitted during the decay of heavy nuclei which have
a large number of protons and neutrons-
- On losing alpha particle, mass number decreases by 4 and the atomic number
decreases by 2 and a new element is formed.
2nd Beta ( −10 e )
- A β-particle is the same as an electron.
- It is often called a high energy electron because it is very fast moving.
- A β-particle comes from the nucleus of an atom!
- It has a charge of -1 and very little mass (only 1 ÷ 1840 as big as a proton), so it is
given a mass number of zero because the mass is very small.
- A β-particles have more penetrating ability than α-particles but may be absorbed by a
few millimeters of aluminum.
- A β-particles are less ionising than α-particles but more ionising than γ-rays.
- A β-particles may be emitted during the decay of either big or small nuclei.
- - On losing beta particle, mass number stays the same & atomic number goes up by 1.
- A neutron in the nucleus has changed into a proton plus an electron.
- The proton stays inside the nucleus but the electron is given out as a β-particle.

3rd Gamma rays :

- A γ-ray is an electromagnetic wave.
- It is at the small wavelength end of the electromagnetic spectrum.
A γ -ray has no mass and no charge.
- Emitting a γ-ray makes no difference to the mass number or the atomic number but
will make the nucleus more stable.
- Many centimeters of lead or a few meters of concrete will absorb most γ-rays.
- γ-rays are the least ionising of the three types of radiation.
* comparison between the three types of radioactivity.
4
Point of Alpha α( He ) Beta β ( 0 e ) Gamma rays
2 −1
comparison
Nature helium nucleus Electron comes electromagnetic
2p+2n from the nucleus wave
Charge +2 -1 0
Mass 4 Units * ≈1/2000 unit 0
Speed 1/10 C * ”fast” 9/10 C very fast 1C extremely fast
Penetration power “Week” Stopped by “moderate” “strong”
a thick cardboard Stopped by a thick Stopped by a thick
“4 – 10 cm in air” Aluminum sheet Lead sheet

Ionising power “Strong” “moderate” “Week”

In electric field Small deviation Large deviation No deviation
towards–ve plate towards +ve plate
* Deflecting under the effect of electric field:

In magnetic field Curved path Curved path

perpendicular to the perpendicular to the No deviation
magnetic field magnetic field
opposite to beta opposite to alpha
* Deflecting under the effect of magnetic field:
* Back ground radiations:
- A small amount of radiation around us all the time.
- Occurs naturally, due to some sources like: (rocks, cosmic rays, soil, building
materials, air and even space.)
Half lifetime
- It is the time taken for half of the radioactive nuclei to decay.
Or "The time taken for the count rate to fall to half of its
original reading."
- A radioactive material will have some stable nuclei and
some unstable nuclei.
- The stable nuclei don't change, that's what stable means.
- The unstable nuclei will change into stable nuclei and
emit radioactivity.
- Different materials have different of values half-life.
- Some do it very quickly “few seconds”
- Some do it very slowly” Millions of years.
- A graph showing how the count rate decreases as time goes by will have a curve like
the one below.
For any particular radioisotope the count rate and time will be different but the shape of
the curve will be the same.

N.B:
- The easiest way to measure the
half-life from the graph is to
1. Read the original count rate at
zero days.
2. Go down to half the original count
rate and draw a horizontal line to the
curve. Then draw a vertical line
down from the curve.
3. You can read off the half-life
where the line crosses the time axis.
(On our graph the half-life is 20
days.)
* Example:
- The half-life of a material is 3 hours.
- The initial count rate is 544 Bq,
- What will the count rate be after 15 hours?
Answer:
- Put the count rate in boxes and use arrows to represent the half-life.
In 15 hours there are 15 ÷ 3 half-lives = 5 half-lives.
- After each half-life the count rate is halved.
- After five half-lives the count rate is 17.
Rutherford Experiment
- Early in the 20th century scientists realised that all
matter is made up of atoms.
- As a result of an experiment carried out by his
assistants, Hans Geiger and Ernest Marsden, Ernest
Rutherford suggested a model for the atom.
- The experiment is known as Rutherford's alpha particle
scattering experiment.
- A beam of alpha particles is aimed at a thin foil of gold.
- Results:
1- Most of the alpha particles pass straight through the
foil without deviations.
2- Some alpha particles are deviated through the golden
foil with a small angle (smaller than 900)
3- A very small number of alpha particles rebound off the
gold foil (deviate with an angle greater than 900)
* Conclusion:
1- The nucleus of an atom has a very small volume
compared with the volume of the whole atom. (most of the atom is space)
2- Nucleus is a positively charged.
3- Most of the mass of the atom is concentrated in the nucleus
Unit Five “Nuclear Physics”

Uses of radioisotopes
There are many practical applications to the use of radioactivity/radiation. Radioactive
sources are used to study living organisms, to diagnose and treat diseases, to sterilize
medical instruments and food, to produce energy for heat and electric power, and to
monitor various steps in all types of industrial
processes.
1. Discover the leakage of water:
To detect leaking pipe, a small amount of a
radioactive compound produces beta is
injected into the pipe. It is then detected with a
GM counter above ground.

2. Sheet thickness control:

- In paper mills, the thickness of the paper can be controlled by measuring how much
beta radiation passes through the paper to a Geiger counter.
- The counter controls the pressure of the rollers to give the correct thickness.
- With paper, plastic or aluminium foil, βeta rays are used, because Alpha will not go
through the paper.
- We choose a source with a long half-life so that it does not need to be replaced often.

3. Medical tracer”
- A tracer is a radioactive element whose pathway can be followed.
- Radioactive Iodine-131 can be used to study the function of the thyroid gland assisting
in detecting disease.
- It has a small half-life but not too small.
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Unit Five “Nuclear Physics”

4. Cancer treatment:
Because Gamma rays can kill living cells, they are used to kill cancer cells without
having to resort to difficult surgery. This is called "Radiotherapy", and works because
cancer cells can't repair themselves when damaged by gamma rays, as healthy cells can.
It's vital to get the dose correct - too much and you'll damage too many healthy cells, too
little and you won't stop the cancer from spreading in time.
Some cancers are easier to treat with radiotherapy than others - it's not too difficult to
aim gamma rays at a breast tumour, but for lung cancer it's much harder to avoid
damaging healthy cells. Also, lungs are more easily damaged by gamma rays, therefore
other treatments may be used.

5. Smoke detector
Smoke alarms contain a weak source made of Americium-241.
Alpha particles are emitted from here, which ionise the air, so
that the air conducts electricity and a small current flows.
If smoke enters the alarm, this absorbs the a particles, the
current reduces, and the alarm sounds.
Am-241 has a half-life of 460 years.

6. Sterilizing:
- Gamma rays can be used to kill bacteria, mould
and insects in food. This process prolongs the shelf-
life of the food, but sometimes changes the taste.
Gamma rays are also used to sterilise hospital
equipment, especially plastic syringes that would be
damaged if heated.

6. Checking Welds
If a gamma source is placed on one side of the welded metal, and a photographic film on
the other side, weak points or air bubbles will show up on the film, like an X-ray.

7. Carbon dating:
- Animals and plants have a known proportion of Carbon-14 in their tissues.
- When they die they stop taking Carbon in, then the amount of Carbon-14 goes down at
a known rate. (Carbon-14 has a half-life of 5700 years).
- The age of the ancient organic materials can be found by measuring the amount of
Carbon-14 that is left.

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Unit Five “Nuclear Physics”

Dangers of Radioactivity
1) Alpha:
- Alpha particles are slow, and can be stopped by a sheet of paper.
- Whilst they cannot penetrate your skin, you could easily eat or drink something
contaminated with an Alpha source.
- This put a source of alpha particles inside your body, ionising atoms in nearby cells.
- The cell may turn cancerous and start multiplying uncontrollably.
- Thus alpha particles, whilst they have a low penetrating power, can be the most
dangerous because they ionise so strongly.
- Alpha particles cannot penetrate through body tissue and so will be absorbed and cause
damage to the internal organs of the body which are near to the radioactive source.
Sometimes granite rock contains radium-224 which decays to form the gas radon-220.
- Radon-220 is an alpha -emitter and can be present in some buildings
which have been built on granite. People in the buildings will breath in radioactive
radon-220 which emits alpha -particles within their lungs.
- This increases their risk of getting lung cancer.

2) Beta:
- Beta particles have a longer range than alphas, but ionise much less strongly, they do
around 1/20th of the damage done by the same dose of alpha particles.
- However, they do have more penetrating power, which means that they can get through
your skin and affect cells inside you.

3) Gamma rays:
- Hardly ionise atoms at all, so they do not cause damage directly in this way.
- However, gamma rays are very difficult to stop.
- When they are absorbed by an atom, that atom gains quite a bit of energy, and may
then emit other particles.
- If that atom is in one of your cells, this is not good!
N.B:
- Both beta -particles and gamma rays will penetrate through all body tissue and are less
likely to cause damage than alpha -particles.
beta -particles are more ionising than gamma -rays and will cause more damage
for the same exposure and intensity.
- Isotopes with a short half-life are the most suitable for use as medical tracers.

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Dr. Noha Ammar

Safety precautions:
- Damage to Living Cells - Internal Radiation.
Radiation which has come from radioactive sources inside of the body is
called internalradiation. All three types of radioactivity are harmful and
safety precautions must always be taken.
- Alpha particles are the most harmful form of internal radiation.
- Alpha particles cannot penetrate through body tissue and so will be
absorbed and causedamage to the internal organs of the body which are
near to the radioactive source.
Sometimes granite rock contains radium-224 which decays to form the gas
radon-220.

- Radon-220 is an alpha -emitter and can be present in some buildings

which have been built on granite. People in the buildings will breath
in radioactiveradon-220 which emits alpha -particles within their
lungs.
- This increases their risk of getting lung cancer.

- Both beta -particles and gamma rays will penetrate through all body
tissue and are lesslikely to cause damage than alpha -particles.
beta -particles are more ionising than gamma -rays and will cause
more damagefor the same exposure and intensity.
N.B:
Isotopes with a short half-life are the most suitable for use as medical tracers.
* Sign of radioactive danger

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