Interference of light

Light is a form of energy which causes sensation of vision to eyes.

Different theories were developed by different scientists to explain the nature of light.
In Newton’s corpuscular theory he predicted that light travels in the form of small tiny
particles called “corpuscles”. Newton’s corpuscular theory successfully explains the
phenomenon of reflection and refraction but failed to explain interference, diffraction and
polarization.

The Dutch physicist Huygens proposed wave theory of light. Based on wave theory of
light Huygen explained the propagation of light, phenomena of interference, diffraction and
polarization successfully. Maxwell explained the electromagnetic theory of light. Planck’s
quantum theory could explain the dual nature of light.

Wave: The disturbance produced in the medium causing transfer of energy is called a wave.

Wave is described by the displacement of the particle, y. The value of y is a function of space
coordinates (x, y, z) and a function of time‘t’.

Thus y = (x, y, z, t)
A sinusoidal wave propagating in one direction say x-direction may be represented by
 2π 
y(x, t) = A sin  ( x − vt )
λ 
This means at any instant of time ‘t’, it gives the displacement ‘y’ of a particle from the
equilibrium position as a function of coordinate ‘x’ of the particle.

Frequency of wave (ν ν): Frequency of the wave is defined as number

of cycles made per second. Units for frequency are Hertz

Amplitude (a): The maximum displacement of the vibrating particle

from its mean position is called amplitude of wave.

Wavelength (λ λ): The distance between two successive crests or troughs is called wavelength.
It is denoted by ‘λ’.

Time Period of the wave (T): Time required to complete one cycle is known as time period
of wave. It is denoted by ‘T’

Phase of a wave: Phase represents the position and direction of the

motion of the wave at any instant. It can be expressed in radians or
degrees. It is denoted by ‘φ’.It is also expressed as either t/T or x/λ.

The difference in the phase angles between the two waves is called
Phase Difference.

Example: Two waves are shown in figure. The phase of wave 1 is π/2 at point ‘P’ and the
other is ‘0’ at an instant. Therefore phase difference between two waves is π/2

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Path difference: The difference in the paths traversed by two light

waves emitted by coherent sources is called path difference. As shown
in figure S1 and S2 are coherent sources xy is screen; ‘P’ is a point of
observation. The distance between two light rays S2P-S1P is path
difference.

Phase Difference: The difference in phase angles between the two light waves at a point is
called phase difference. It is measured in radians.

For a path difference λ between the two light waves, the corresponding phase difference is 2π
radians. For a path difference ‘x’, corresponding phase difference 'δ' is given by

 2π 
δ=   x radians.
 λ 

Coherence: Two sources of light are said to be coherent if they emit light waves of same
frequency and constant phase difference with each other.

Two coherent sources are not available in practice. So for practical purpose a source of light
and its virtual source are considered as coherent sources.

Refractive Index: when light passes from rarer medium to denser medium, and is incident at
the boundary which separates both media, some part of light is reflected and other part is
refracted into the denser medium.

The ratio of sine of angle of incidence ‘i’ to the sine of angle of refraction ‘r’ is called
refractive index of the second medium with respect to the first medium. It is denoted by ‘µ’.

sin i Velocity of light in air (c)

µ= . Or
sin r Velocity of light in the medium(v)

It is dimensionless quantity and is always greater than one. For air µ = 1

Principle of Superposition:

When two waves are superimposed the resultant amplitude is the

algebraic sum of the amplitudes of two waves.

Let us consider two waves with amplitudes a1 and a2 in the same

direction. Suppose a1 be the amplitude of the first wave in absence
of the second and a2 be the amplitude of the second wave in
absence of the first wave then the resultant amplitude of these two
waves is
a = a1 + a2
If these two waves are travelling in opposite directions the resultant
amplitude is a = a1 - a2
y = a1 - a2

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Interference: When two waves are superimposed the resultant intensity is maximum at
some points and minimum at some points in the region of superposition.

The phenomenon of modification of intensity in the region of superposition is called

interference

Constructive interference: When the crest of one wave is

superimposed on the crest of the other wave or trough of
one wave is superimposed on the trough of other wave, the
amplitude at that point is maximum and intensity of light
is also maximum and bright band is formed this is called
constructive interference.

The condition for constructive interference is path

difference between the two light waves is integral
multiples of the wavelength. That is

Path difference = n λ (or) Phase difference = 2n π

Destructive interference: When a crest of the one wave

is superimposed on the trough of the other wave or
trough of one wave is superimposed on the crest of the
other wave, the amplitude becomes zero and intensity of
light is also zero, dark band is formed. This is called
destructive interference.

The condition for the destructive interference is that the

path difference between the two waves is odd multiples
of λ/2.
λ
Path difference = (2n+1) or phase difference = (2n+1)π
2
i.e. phase difference is odd multiples of ‘π’

Conditions for interference:

To obtain a permanent or stationary interference, the conditions are classified in to following

three parts.

(1) Condition for sustained interference:

i) The two sources should be coherent: The resultant intensity at any point is given by
I = a12 + a 22 +2a1a2 cosδ. From this expression, it is clear that I will be constant if phase
difference δ is constant.
ii) The two sources must emit continuous waves of same wavelength and time period:
otherwise the intensity at any point will be alternately maximum and minimum and
hence interference will not be good.

(2) Condition for Observation:

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i) The separation between two sources ‘d’ should be small: If ‘d’ is high fringe width will
be small and eye cannot resolve the fringes.
ii) The distance D between two sources and screen should be large: If ‘D’ is small, fringe
width is small so that fringes cannot be visible clearly.
iii) The background should be dark.

(3) Condition for good contrast:

i) The amplitudes of the interfering waves should be equal nearly: if there is large
difference between the amplitudes, the minimum intensity is not perfect dark. So dark
and bright fringes cannot differ. So contrast becomes poor.
ii) The sources should be narrow: If the sources are not narrow, the contrast becomes
poor.
iii) The sources should be monochromatic: If white light is used instead of monochromatic
light, different colours will overlap each other and the net effect would be white light
only.

Coherence:

Two sources of light are said to be coherent if they emit light waves of same frequency and
constant phase difference with each other.

Two coherent sources are not available in practice. So for practical purpose a source of light
and its virtual sources are considered as coherent sources

Interference in thin films: (Due to the reflection of light)

Let us consider a transparent thin film of uniform

thickness t, bounded by two parallel surfaces as
shown in fig. Let the refractive index of the material
be and the film is surrounded by a common medium
air. Suppose a ray of monochromatic light AB be
incident on its upper surface. This ray is partly
reflected along BC and is partly refracted into the film
along BD. The refracted ray makes an angle r with the
normal drawn at the lower bounding surface at D. It is
partly reflected back into the film along DE. The
reflected DE refracts at the outer surface and emerges
out along EF which is parallel to the ray BC.

The waves traveling along the direction BC and EF are obtained from the incident ray AB.
Therefore they are coherent and can produce interference if they are brought to overlap by
lens.

Condition for the interference depends on their optical path difference. Hence, let us now
calculate the optical path difference between the reflected ray BC and the refracted ray
BDEF. A normal EH is drawn on line BC. From points H and E the rays HC and EF travel

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equal distances. The reflected ray BC travels in air while the refracted ray (BD+DE) travel in
the film of refractive index ‘µ’. The geometrical path difference between the ray1 and 2 is

Geometrical path difference = (BD + DE) – BH

Optical path difference ∆ = µ(BD + DE) – BH ---------- (1) (Q for air µ= 1)

In ∆ BFD, ∠BDG = ∠GDE = r, BD = DE and BG = GE

DG t
In ∠BDG, cos r = or BD =
BD cos r

2t
∴ BD + DE = ----------- (2)
cos r

BG
In ∆BDG, tan r = or BG = DG tan r
DG
⇒ BG = t tan r ---------- (3)

In ∆ BHE, ∠HBE = 90 – i and ∠BHE = 900

∴ ∠BEH = i

BH BH
In ∆ BHE, sin i = = or BH = 2BG sin i
BE 2 BG

⇒ BH = 2t tan r . sin i Q from eqn.(3)

sin i
We know µ = or sin i = µ sin r
sin r

∴BH = 2t tan r (µ sin r)

2 µ t sin 2 r
= ----------- (4)
cos r

Substituting Eqn. (2) and (4) in (1), we get

2µ t 2 µ t sin 2 r
∆= -
cos r cos r

2µ t
= (1-sin2r)
cos r

∴ ∆ = 2 µt cos r ---------(5)

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The ray AB reflected at a surface of denser medium and suffers a phase change of ‘π’ which
is equal to the path difference λ
2

Thus the true path difference between the ray 1 and 2 is

λ
∆= 2 µ t cos r - -------- (6)
2
We know that maxima occurs when effective path difference =nλ
λ
i.e., 2 µ t cos r - =nλ (Or)
2
λ
2 µ t cos r = (2n +1) ------ (7)
2
If this condition is fulfilled, the film appears bright in reflected light.
λ
The minima occurs when the effective path difference = (2n +1)
2
λ λ
i.e., 2 µ t cos r - = (2n +1)
2 2
2 µ t cos r = (n + 1) λ
2 µ t cos r = n λ ------- (8) where n = 0, 1, 2 . . . (Q if n is integer, n+1 is also
integer)
When this condition is fulfilled, the film appears dark in reflected light.

Newton’s rings:
When a Plano convex lens with its convex surface is placed on a glass plate, an air film of
gradually increasing thickness is formed between the lens and glass plate. The thickness of
the film at the point of contact is zero. If the monochromatic light is allowed to fall
normally, and the film is viewed in the reflected light, alternate dark and bright concentric
rings around the point of contact between the lens and glass plate are seen. This
phenomenon was discovered by Newton and hence the name.

Explanation:

Newton’s rings are formed due to interference

between the waves reflected from the top and bottom
surfaces of the air film formed between the plates.

Let a monochromatic ray of light which falls on the

system. A part of ray is reflected at the bottom curved
surface of the lens. The other part is refracted and
again reflected and goes out with a phase reversal of π.
The reflected rays produce interference fringes, as they
are derived from the same ray .

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Circular Rings: As the air film between the glass plate and the lens has circular symmetry,
rings are circular

The conditions for constructive and destructive interference are

The conditions for constructive interference is

λ
2 µt cos r = (2n +1) (for bright fringes) ----- (1)
2

2 µ t cos r = n λ (for dark) ----------- (2)

For normal incidence cos r = 1 and for air µ = 1

Thus 2 t = (2n (for bright fringes) ------------ (3)

2t = n (for dark fringes) ---------- (4)

(a) Newton’s rings by reflected light:

(i ) Diameter of the dark rings:

Now shall calculate the diameter of dark and bright fringes. Let LOLI be the lens placed on a
glass plate AB. Let ‘R’ be the radius of curvature of the lens, ‘r’ be the radius of Newton’s
ring corresponding to the constant film thickness ‘t’.

According to Pythagoras' theorem

From ∆CNP

CP2 = NC2+NP2
But NP = NQ = r, NO = t, CP= R and NC = R - t
R2 = (R – t )2+ r2
R2 = R2 + t 2 -2Rt+ r2
As t is very small, t2 can neglected.
r2
r2 = 2Rt (or) t= ---- (5)
2R
From eqn (4) and eqn (5);
r2 = n R

Or r= for dark ring --- (6)

The diameter of the dark ring is

D=2 ( D = 2r )

D ----- (7)

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The diameter of the dark rings is proportional to the square root of the natural numbers.
At the point of contact t = 0 and path difference is which is condition for minimum
intensity. Therefore central spot is dark.

(ii) Diameter of the bright rings:

λ
For bright ring 2 t = (2n +1)
2

r2 λ (2n + 1)λR
2 = (2n +1) or r2 =
2R 2 2

r=

The diameter of the bright ring is

D= 2

D ------ (8)

The diameter of the bright rings is proportional to the square root of odd natural numbers as
(2n+1) is odd.

(b) Newton’s rings by transmitted light:

In the case of transmitted light,

2 t = (2n (for dark fringes)

2t = n (for bright fringes)

The diameter of the bright ring is

D=2 & D

And the diameter of the dark ring is

D= & D

Thus in the case of transmitted light, central spot is bright and the rings are just opposite to
the rings in reflected light.

(c) Determination of wavelength of Monochromatic light using Newton’s rings:

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Let ‘R’ be the radius of curvature of the surface in contact with glass plate, be the wave
th th
length of the light used and Dm and Dn be the diameters of m and n rings respectively, then

Dm2 = 4m and = 4n

- Dm2 = 4(n-m)

Dn2 − Dm2
λ=
4 R( n − m)

By using above equation wavelength can be calculated.

(d) Determination of refractive index of a liquid:

If the gap between the lens and plane glass plate is filled with a liquid, the air film is replaced
by a liquid film.
The condition for interference for dark ring is,
2 µt cos r = n ------ (1) where µ is refractive index of liquid
For normal incidence cos r = 1,
2 µ t = n --------- (2)

The radius of nth dark ring is given by

= 2Rt -------- (3)
Substituting the value of ‘t’ from eqn (2) in eqn (3) we get

= Or

4R n λ
= ----------- (3) R
µ
Similarly the diameter of the mth dark ring is
4R m λ
Dm2 = ---------- (4)
µ
Subtracting eqn (4) from eqn (3) we get,
4 R ( n − m )λ
(D 2
n − Dm2 ) Liquid =
µ
------------ (5)

Suppose if there is an air film between Plano convex lens and glass plate then

(D 2
n − Dm2 ) Air = 4 R(n − m) λ ------- (6) (Q for air µ = 1)

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Therefore from eqn (5) and eq(6)

=
(D 2
n − Dm2 )
Air
------------ (7)
(D 2
n −D 2
)
m Liquid

Principle of Interferometers:

Interferometry is an important investigative technique in the fields of astronomy, fiber

optics, engineering metrology, optical metrology, oceanography, seismology, spectroscopy
(and its applications to chemistry), quantum mechanics etc.

Interferometry makes use of the principle of superposition that will cause the
result of their combination to have some meaningful property. The result is used to extract
the information about the original state of the waves. This works because when two
coherent waves combine, the resulting intensity pattern is determined by the phase
difference between the two waves. Waves that are in phase will undergo constructive
interference while waves that are out of phase will undergo destructive interference. Waves
which are not completely in phase or not completely out of phase will have an intermediate
intensity pattern, which can be used to determine their relative phase difference. Most
interferometers use light or some other form of electromagnetic wave

. A single incoming beam of coherent light

will be split into two identical beams by a beam
splitter (a partially reflecting mirror). Each of
these beams travels a different route, called a
path, and they are recombined before arriving
at a detector. The path difference creates a
phase difference between them. This phase
difference causes the interference pattern
between coherent waves. If a single beam has
been split along two paths, then the phase
difference is diagnostic of anything that
changes the phase along the paths. This could
be a physical change in the path length itself or
a change in the refractive index along the path.

When the two light beams meet up at the screen or camera, they overlap and interfere,
and the phase difference between them creates a pattern of light and dark areas (in other
words, a set of interference fringes). The light areas are places where the two beams have
added together (constructively) and become brighter; the dark areas are places where the
beams have subtracted from one another (destructively). The exact pattern of interference
depends on the path difference between the two waves. Required parameters of the wave can
be calculated accurately using the phenomena of interferometry.

Interferometers became popular toward the end of the 19th century and there are several
different kinds, each based roughly on the principle we've outlined above and named for the

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scientist who perfected it. Three common types are the Michelson, Fabry-Perot, and Fizeau
interferometers:

1. The Michelson interferometer (named for Albert Michelson, 1853–1931) is probably

best known for the part it played in the famous Michelson-Morley experiment in
1881. That was when Michelson and his colleague Edward Morley (1838–1923)
disproved the existence of a mysterious invisible fluid called "the ether" that
physicists had believed filled empty space. The Michelson-Morley experiment was an
important stepping-stone toward Albert Einstein's theory of relativity.

2. The Fabry-Perot interferometer (invented in 1897 by Charles Fabry, 1867–1945, and

Alfred Perot, 1863–1925), also known as an etalon, evolved from the Michelson
interferometer. It makes clearer and sharper fringes that are easier to see and measure.

3. The Fizeau interferometer (named for French physicist Hippolyte Fizeau, 1819–1896)
is another variation and is generally easier to use than a Fabry-Perot. It's widely used
for making optical and engineering measurements.

Applications of Interference:

1. Wavelength of monochromatic light can be determined

2. Velocity of light can be determined

3. Refractive indices of liquids and gases can be determined accurately

4. Thickness of thin films can be determined

5. Reflecting powers of the surfaces can be calculated

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