Chapter 2 Lecture (3) Dr.

Ayman Rabie

Chapter 2 interference
Lecturer (3)

Light waves
The first convincing wave theory for light was in 1678 by Dutch physicist Christian
Huygens. Mathematically simpler than the electromagnetic theory of Maxwell, it nicely
explained reflection and refraction in terms of waves and gave physical meaning to the
index of refraction. Huygens’ wave theory is based on a geometrical construction that
allows us to tell where a given wavefront will be at any time in the future if we know its
present position. Huygens’ Principle is:
All points on a wavefront serve as point sources of spherical secondary wavelets.
After a time t, the new position of the wavefront will be that of a surface tangent to
these secondary wavelets.

Superposition of waves
Superposition principle:

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Chapter 2 Lecture (3) Dr.Ayman Rabie

If two or more traveling waves are moving through a medium, the resultant value of the
wave function at any point is the algebraic sum of the values of the wave functions of
the individual waves.
Waves that obey this principle are called linear waves. In the case of mechanical waves,
linear waves are generally characterized by having amplitudes much smaller than their
wavelengths. Waves that violate the superposition principle are called nonlinear waves
and are often characterized by large amplitudes. In this book, we deal only with linear
waves.
One consequence of the superposition principle is that two traveling waves can pass
through each other without being destroyed or even altered.
Active Figure shown is a pictorial
representation of the superposition of two
pulses.
The wave function for the pulse moving to the
right is y1, and the wave function for the pulse
moving to the left is y2. The pulses have the
same speed but different shapes, and the
displacement of the elements of the medium is
in the positive y direction for both pulses.
When the waves overlap, the wave function
for the resulting complex wave is given by y1
+ y2. The two pulses finally separate and
continue moving in their original directions. Notice that the pulse shapes remain
unchanged after the interaction, as if the two pulses had never met!
Because the displacements caused by the two pulses are in the same direction, we refer
to their superposition as constructive interference.
When the displacements caused by the two pulses are in opposite directions, however,
we refer to their superposition as destructive interference.
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Chapter 2 Lecture (3) Dr.Ayman Rabie

Interference
 Path difference & phase difference
It was stated that the phase difference between two waves that were initially in phase is
simply proportional to the difference in the respective path lengths traversed by the two
waves between their origin and the point at which they interfere.
The phase difference is related to the difference in the optical path lengths between the
source and the observation point for the two waves. This is the optical path difference
(OPD):

𝜆 2𝜋
𝑂𝑃𝐷 = 𝛿 = 𝑂𝑃𝐿1 − 𝑂𝑃𝐿2 = 𝑟1 − 𝑟2 = ( ) ∆∅ → ∆∅ = 𝛿
2𝜋 𝜆

The phase difference changes by 2π every

time the OPD increases by a wavelength. The
OPD is therefore constant along a fringe.
Constructive interference occurs when the
two waves are in phase, and a bright fringe or
maximum in the intensity pattern results.
This corresponds to a phase difference of an
integral number of 2π’s or an OPD that is a
multiple of the wavelength. A dark fringe or
minimum in the intensity pattern results from destructive interference when the two
waves are out of phase by π or the OPD is an odd number of half wavelengths. For
conditions between these values, an intermediate value of the intensity results.
If you have two ordinary light bulbs, incandescent or fluorescent, the light waves they
emit have random phases. These phases change in time intervals that are less than a
nanosecond apart; thus, the conditions for constructive and destructive interference are
maintained for only very short time intervals, too short for our eyes to notice. Such light
sources are said to be incoherent.
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Chapter 2 Lecture (3) Dr.Ayman Rabie

 Coherent sources
If two sources are emitting light to be coherent with same amplitude, same wavelength,
same frequency, same velocity, same starting phase etc. then the sources are said to be
coherent.
 Methods of production of coherent sources
(i) Young’s double slit method
(ii) Bi-prism method
To observe detailed interference effects in light waves, the following conditions must be
fulfilled:
1. The sources must be coherent, i.e., they must maintain a constant phase with
respect to each other.
2. The sources must be monochromatic, i.e., of a single wavelength.
A common method for observing interference is to allow a single monochromatic light
source to split to form two coherent light sources and then allow the light waves from
the two sources to overlap. This can be achieved by using the diffraction of light waves
from a small opening λ ≈ a, where a is the width of each slit.

Young’s Double Slit Experiment

Figure shows a schematic diagram of the apparatus used by Thomas Young in 1801 to
demonstrate the interference of light waves. Plane monochromatic light waves arrive at
a barrier that has two parallel slits S1 and S2. These two slits serve as a pair of coherent
light sources because the emerging waves originate from the same wave front and hence
have the same phase relationship.
Diffraction of the light by the two slits sends overlapping waves into the region between
the barrier and the viewing screen. When light waves from the two slits combine
constructively at any location on the screen, they produce a bright band.

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Chapter 2 Lecture (3) Dr.Ayman Rabie

On the other hand, when light from the two slits combine destructively at any location
on the screen they produce a dark band. These bands are called fringes, and the pattern
of bright and dark fringes is called an interference pattern. Figure b shows a
representation of the interference pattern observed on the screen.

With the help of Fig. 2a, we can quantitatively specify the positions of bright and dark
fringes in Young’s experiment. In this figure, we show the following:
• Light waves of wavelength λ illuminating a barrier having two narrow slits
• The two slits S1 and S2 are separated by a distance d
• Point Q is half way between the two slits
• The central line QO between the barrier and the screen has a distance D (where
D ≫ d)
• Point P on the screen makes an angle θ above the central line QO. The central line
QO will be taken as a reference line for measuring positive angles above or below the
line
• The distance from P to S1 is r1, and the distance from P to S2 is r2.

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Chapter 2 Lecture (3) Dr.Ayman Rabie

The waves from S2 must travel a longer distance to reach point P than the waves starting
at S1. This difference ΔL in distance is called the path difference. When D≫d , the rays
r1 and r2 are approximately parallel. The path difference will be:
∆𝐿 = |𝑟2 − 𝑟1 | ≅ 𝑑 sin 𝜃
Constructive interference (maximum light intensity) occurs at P when the two waves are
in phase (φ =0, ±2π, ±4π ... rad), or when the path difference d sin θ is an integer
multiple of the wavelength λ. That is, when:
𝑑 sin 𝜃𝑚 = 𝑚𝜆 (𝑚 = 0,1,2, … . ) [𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑎 𝑜𝑟 𝐵𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝐹𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠]
The number m for a bright fringe is called the fringe order number. The central bright
fringe at θm =0, where m=0, is called the zeroth-order maximum. The first maximum on
either sides of point O, where m =1, is called the first-order maximum, and so forth.
Destructive interference occurs at P when the path difference d sin θ is an odd multiple
of half the wavelength. That is when:

1
𝑑 sin 𝜃𝑚 = (𝑚 − ) 𝜆 (𝑚 = 1,2, … . ) [𝑀𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑎 𝑜𝑟 𝐷𝑎𝑟𝑘 𝐹𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠]
2

Similarly, the two waves reaching P at any time are completely out-of-phase

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Chapter 2 Lecture (3) Dr.Ayman Rabie

(φ=±π, ±3π, ±5π . . . rad), and hence a minimum light intensity is detected. In this case,
the first minimum on either side of point O, where m=1, is called the first-order
minimum, and so forth.
Using the triangle OPQ of Fig. 2a, we can find the location y, on either side of point O,
of a fringe from the relation:
𝑦 = 𝐷 sin 𝜃
In addition to the conditions λ≫a (where a is the width of each slit) and D≫d, we
assume that λ≪d. This assumption is valid only if θ is very small and hence tan θ ≃ sin
θ. Therefore, y = Dsin θ, or:
ym = D sin θm

Substituting with sin θm, we get the following expressions for the locations of bright and
dark fringes above or below the central point O:
λD
ym = m (𝑚 = 0,1,2, … . ) [𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑎 𝑜𝑟 𝐵𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝐹𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠]
d
1 λD
ym = (m − ) (𝑚 = 1,2, … . ) [𝑀𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑎 𝑜𝑟 𝐷𝑎𝑟𝑘 𝐹𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠]
2 d

We can find the distance on the screen between the adjacent maxima or minima near the
origin O by finding the difference
𝜆𝐷
∆𝑦 = 𝑦𝑚+1 − 𝑦𝑚 =
𝑑
In other words, when the condition for small-angle approximation is valid, Δy does not
depend on the order of the fringe m and the fringes are uniformly spaced. The same
result is true for dark fringes.

Light Intensity in the Double-Slit Experiment

Let us assume that the waves emerging from the two slits of Fig. 2a are two sinusoidal
electric fields having the same phase, wavelength λ, angular frequency ω=2πf , and
amplitude Eo. When the two waves arrive at point P, their phase difference ϕ depends on
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Chapter 2 Lecture (3) Dr.Ayman Rabie

the path difference ΔL =|r2 − r1|≃ d sin θ. We can write the magnitude of the electric
field at point P due to each separate wave as:
𝐸1 = 𝐸𝑜 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐸2 = 𝐸𝑜 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙)
The superposition of E1 and E2, E =E1 + E2, can be calculated in a similar way as
𝜙 𝜙
𝐸 = 2𝐸𝑜 cos ( ) 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝜔𝑡 + )
2 2
We can prove that the intensity I of light waves at P is proportional to the square of the
resultant electric field averaged over one cycle. Thus:
𝜙
𝐼 = 𝐼𝑜 cos 2 ( ) 𝐼𝑜 = 4𝐸𝑜2
2

Where Io is the peak intensity .Since a path difference of a complete wave length λ
corresponds to a phase difference of 2π rad, then one can relate the path difference ΔL to
the phase difference ϕ or vice-versa by the two relations:

𝜙 2𝜋
∆𝐿 = 𝜆 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜙 = ∆𝐿
2𝜋 𝜆
In the last form, when we replace ΔL by d sin θ, we get the following relation for the
phase:
2𝜋
𝜙= 𝑑 sin 𝜃
𝜆
In addition, when we use the condition sin θ ≃ tan θ, and replace tan θ by y/D , we
arrive at the following relation for the phase:
2𝜋 𝑑𝑦
𝜙=
𝜆 𝐷
Substituting the expression of φ we get:
𝜋 𝜋𝑑
𝐼 = 𝐼𝑜 cos 2 ( 𝑑 sin 𝜃) = 𝐼𝑜 cos 2 ( 𝑦)
𝜆 𝜆𝐷
Constructive interference occurs when π d y/λD is an integer multiple of π,
𝑚𝜆𝐷
corresponding to 𝑦𝑚 = , (m=0, 1, 2, . . .). Figure 3 shows the variation of the
𝑑

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Chapter 2 Lecture (3) Dr.Ayman Rabie

intensity I against both d sin θ and φ, when we satisfy both the conditions D ≫ d and the
small observation angle.

Fresnel Biprism
Fresnel’s biprism consist of two prisms of very small angles joined base to base. In
practice, a thin glass plate is taken and one of its faces is ground and polished till a prism
is formed with an obtuse angle of about 179° and two side angles of the order 30°.
When light ray is incident on an ordinary prism , the ray is bent through an angle called
the angle of deviation .as a result ,the ray emerging out of the prism appear to have
emanated from a virtual source S' located a small distance above the real source.
A Biprism, in the same way creates two virtual sources S1 and S2. These two virtual
sources are coherent because they are images of the same source S created by refraction
When Light is incident on the biprism. Light passing through the lower section is
refracted up, while light going into the top section is refracted down, forming a region
where the beams interfere. This creates two virtual sources S 1 and S2, with an apparent
separation d.
A screen is placed at C interference fringes of equal width are produced between E and
F but beyond E and F fringes of large width produced which are due to diffraction. MN
is a stop to limit the rays. To observe the fringes, the screen can be replaced by an eye-

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Chapter 2 Lecture (3) Dr.Ayman Rabie

piece or a low power microscope and fringes are seen in the field of view. If the point C
is at the principal focus of the eyepiece, the fringes are observed in the field of view.

 Theory

For complete theory, the point C is equidistant from A and B. Therefore, it has
maximum intensity. On both sides of C, alternately bright and dark fringes are produced.
𝜆𝐷
The width of the bright fringe or dark fringe, 𝛽 = . moreover, any point on the screen
𝑑
𝑚𝜆𝐷
Will be at the centre of a bright fringe if its distance from C is 𝛽 = . where m = 0,
𝑑

l, 2,3 etc. The point will be at the centre of a dark fringe if is distance from C is

1
(𝑚 − 2) 𝜆𝐷
𝛽= where m = l, 2,3 etc.
𝑑

 Application
 Determination of wavelength of light

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Chapter 2 Lecture (3) Dr.Ayman Rabie

Fresnel's biprism can be used to determine the wavelength of a given source of

monochromatic light. A fine vertical slit S is adjusted just close to a source of light and
the refracting edge is also set parallel to the slit S such that bc is horizontal.
They are adjusted on an optical bench. A micrometer eyepiece is placed on the optical
bench at some distance from the prism to view the fringes in its focal plane (at its cross
wires).
Suppose the distance between the source and the eyepiece = D and the distance between
the two virtual sources A and B = d. The eyepiece is moved horizontally (perpendicular
to the length of the bench) to determine the fringe width. Suppose, for crossing 20 bright
fringes from the field of view, the eyepiece has moved through a distance L
𝐿
Then the fringe width 𝛽 =
20
𝜆𝐷
But the fringe width 𝛽 =
𝑑

𝛽𝑑
∴ 𝜆=
𝐷

 Determination of the distance between the two virtual sources (d)

For this purpose, we make use of the displacement method. A convex lens is placed
between the biprism and the eyepiece in such a position, the distance a between the two

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virtual light sources A’ is determined by means of a simple optical setup. For this the
two virtual light sources A’ are sharply imaged on the translucent screen S by means of
a lens H. From Fig. 2 the imaging equation can be read immediately:
𝑎 𝐵 𝑔𝐵
= →𝑎=
𝑔 𝑏 𝑏
a: distance between the two virtual light sources A’
B: distance between the two virtual light sources A’ on the screen
g: object distance = distance between A’ and the lens H
b: image distance = distance between the lens H and the screen
If the focal length f of the imaging lens is known, the object distance g can be obtained
with the aid of the imaging equation:
1 1 1 𝑓𝑏
= − →𝑔=
𝑔 𝑓 𝑏 𝑏−𝑓

 Determination of thickness of thin sheet of transparent material

The biprism experiment can be used to determine the thickness of a given thin sheet
of transparent material e.g., glass or mica.
Suppose S1 and S2 are two virtual coherent
sources. The point O is equidistant from S1
and S2. When a transparent plate μ of
thickness t and refractive index n is
introduced in the path of one of the beams
(Fig. 6), the fringe which was originally at C
shifts to P. The time taken by the wave from S2 to P in air is the same as the time taken
by the wave from S1 to P partly through air and partly through the plate.
Suppose co is the velocity of light in air and c its velocity in the medium
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𝑆2 𝑃 𝑆1 𝑃 − 𝑡 𝑡
= +
𝐶𝑜 𝑐𝑜 𝑐
𝑐𝑜 𝑐𝑜
𝑜𝑟 𝑆2 𝑃 = 𝑆1 𝑃 − 𝑡 + 𝑡 →∵𝑛 =
𝑐 𝑐
𝑆2 𝑃 − 𝑆1 𝑃 = 𝑛𝑡 − 𝑡 = (𝑛 − 1)𝑡

If P is the point originally occupied by the m th fringe, then the path difference

𝑆2 𝑃 − 𝑆1 𝑃 = 𝑚𝜆 And (𝑛 − 1) 𝑡 = 𝑚 
𝑚𝜆𝐷 𝜆𝐷
Also the distance x through which the fringe is shifted where =𝛽
𝑑 𝑑

, the fringe width.

𝑚𝜆𝐷 𝑥𝑑
∴𝑥= → 𝑚𝜆 =
𝑑 𝐷
𝑥𝑑
∴ (𝑛 − 1)𝑡 =
𝐷
Therefore, knowing x, the distance through which, the central fringe is shifted, D, d
and µ, the thickness of the transparent plate can be calculated. If a monochromatic
source of light is used, the fringes will be similar and it is difficult to locate the
position where the central fringe shifts after the introduction of the transparent plate.
Therefore, white light is used. The fringes will be colored but the central fringe will
be white. When the cross wire is at the central white fringe without the transparent
plate in the path, the reading is noted. When the plate is introduced, the 'position to
which the central white fringe shifts is observed. The difference between the two
positions on the micrometer scale of the eyepiece gives the value of the shift which
is equal to x. Now, with the monochromatic source of light, the micrometer eyepiece
is moved through the same distance x and the number of fringes that cross the field
of view is observed. Suppose m fringes cross the field of view. Then from the
relation
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Chapter 2 Lecture (3) Dr.Ayman Rabie

(𝑛 − 1) 𝑡 = 𝑚 
The value of t can be calculated.

This experiment also shows that light travels more slowly in a medium of refractive
index n > 1, than in air because the central fringe shifts towards the side where the
transparent plate is introduced. Had it been opposite; the shift should have been to
the other side. The Optical path in air = n x t, for a medium of thickness t and
refractive index n.

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