Grade 12- STEM STRAND

General Physics 2
At the end of the session, I can:
• determine the conditions (superposition, path
and phase difference, polarization, amplitude)
for interference to occur emphasizing the
properties of a laser (as a monochromatic and
coherent light source);
• relate the geometry of two-slit experiment set up
(slit separation, and screen-to-slit distance) and
the properties of light (wavelength) to the
properties of the interference pattern (width,
location, and intensity);
At the end of the session, I can:
• relate the geometry of the diffraction experiment
setup (slit size, and screen-to-slit distance) and
properties of light (wavelength) to the properties
of the diffraction pattern (width, location, and
intensity of the fringes); and
• solve problems involving interference and
diffraction using concepts such as optical path
length, phase difference, and path difference.
(added competency)
Interference – results when a light wave meets
another wave

Principle of Superposition
“When two or more waves overlap, the resultant
displacement at any point and at any instant is found by
adding the instantaneous displacements that would be
produced at the point by the individual waves if each
were present alone.”
In simple words: “When two or more waves interfere, the
resultant wave is the sum of the individual waves.”
𝒚 𝒙, 𝒕 = 𝒚𝟏 𝒙, 𝒕 + 𝒚𝟐 𝒙, 𝒕
1. Constructive Interference – results when the
waves arrive together at a point in a phase, that is,
crest to crest or trough to trough; the result is a
reinforced wave of amplitude equal to the sum of
the amplitudes of the two waves.
2. Destructive Interference – results when the
waves arrive together at point 180O out of phase,
that is crest to trough; the resultant wave has
lesser amplitude equal to the difference of the
amplitudes of the individual waves.
3. Total Destructive Interference – occurs when the
waves cancel each other.
Coherent Light Source – maintain a constant
phase relation; the light source is considered
coherent if constructive and destructive
interference continues to occur at a point.
Young’s Double-Slit Experiment
Thomas Young (1980) – performed his famous double-slit
experiment based on the premise that if light is a wave, it
should behave like water waves in a pond.
Young’s Double-Slit Experiment
Interference fringes – succession of bright and
dark bands on the screen.
Central bright fringe – bright band resulting
from the two waves reinforcing each other.

Path Difference – difference in the distances

travelled by the waves coming from the two slits.

note: a bright fringe is often referred to as a

maximum, while a dark fringe is minimum.
Constructive Interference
or for bright fringes (two
slits):
𝝀
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 = 𝒎
𝒅

note: this happens when their

path differences differ by a
whole number of
wavelength mλ, where m =
0, ±1, ±2, ±3, …
Destructive Interference or
for dark fringes (two
slits):
𝟏 𝝀
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 = 𝒎 +
𝟐 𝒅

note: this happens when their

path differences are odd
multiples of half
wavelengths (m +1/2) λ.
where: θ is the angle
between the line
perpendicular to the slit
and the line from the center
of the slit to a point on the
screen, m is the order of
maximum, λ is the
wavelength of light, and d
is the distance between the
slits S1 and S2.
If θ is small, then sinθ ≈ tanθ. Thus, the formulas for
constructive interference and destructive interference
becomes:
Constructive Interference for Young’s Experiment
(for bright finges):
𝒎𝝀
𝒚𝒎 = 𝑹
𝒅

Destructive Interference for Young’s Experiment

(for dark fringes):
𝟏 𝝀
𝒚𝒎 = 𝑹 𝒎 +
𝟐 𝒅
Examples:
Ex 1: A double-slit experiment is performed using a
light wavelength 664 nm. The distance between
the slits is 1.2 mm and the screen is located
2.50 m from the slit. Find the (a) angle that
locates the third order dark fringe on the screen,
(b) distance between the central bright fringe
and the third order dark fringe, and (c) distance
between the third order bright fringe and third
order dark fringe.
Diffraction – bending of light around an obstacle
and the subsequent spreading of light waves
into the region behind the obstacle.

The obstacle may be slit, wire, hole, strands of

hair, feathers, strings, straightedge, or razor
blade, among others.
Diffraction
The analysis for a single slit is similar to that of a
double slit. Diffraction involves interference of
light coming from different parts of the same slit.
Each part of the slit can be considered an
emitter of waves and thus interferes to produce
the diffraction pattern.

The diffraction of light produced by a single slit is

characterized by a wide central maximum and a
symmetric array of bright fringes (called
maxima) equally spaced on both sides of the
central maximum.
Width of the central maximum – distance between the
two minima closest to the center of the diffraction
pattern. Since the bright and dark fringes are
symmetrical with the central maximum, its width is twice
the distance from one minimum or twice the width of the
secondary bright fringe.

Angular width β of the central maximum – angle

between the two minima closest to the center of the
diffraction pattern. β = 2θ
note: The intensity of light is very high at the central
maximum compared to the secondary maxima. The
intensity decreases rapidly on either side of the central
maximum.
Considering the waves coming from the upper edge with a
width a/2 and from the center of the slit of width a, a dark
fringe will be formed if the path difference is λ/2.

𝝀Τ𝟐 𝝀
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 = =
𝒂Τ𝟐 𝒂
Thus, the nth order dark fringe,
𝝀
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 = 𝒎
𝒂

where: θ is the angle form the center, m is the

order of the minimum (m = 1, 2, 3, …), and a is
the slit width.
Assuming that θ is small, sin θ ≈ tan θ. Thus, referring to
the figure below,

𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 ≈ 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝜽
𝒎𝝀 𝒚𝒎
=
𝒂 𝑹
𝑹𝝀
𝒚𝒎 = 𝒎
𝒂
Examples:

Ex 2: A 0.40 mm wide slit is illuminated with 680

nm red light. The diffraction pattern is projected
on a screen 2.5 m away. Find the (a) linear width
and (b) angular width of the central maximum.
Find also the (c) distance between the second
and third order maxima.
Grade 12- STEM STRAND
General Physics 2
At the end of the session, I can:
1. discuss comprehensively the concepts of special
relativity through essential/conceptual questions
activity;
2. solve correctly problems involving special relativity
through practice exercises;
3. perform correctly problem-solving involving special
relativity using the GUESS method of problem
solving; and
4. relate concretely the concepts of special relativity to
cultural sensitivity and community engagement and
participatory action through class recitation.
Special Relativity – describes the motion of
particles with speeds ranging from zero to a
value close to the speed of light in vacuum.

Albert Einstein (1905) –

published his special theory
of relativity which is based
on two postulates.
Two Postulates of Special Relativity
1. Principle of Relativity/ Invariance of Physics
Laws
“The laws of physics must be the same in all
inertial frames of reference.”
note: An inertial frame of reference is one where
Newton’s first law of motion is valid; it is a frame
of reference where a particle is observed to
have no acceleration in the absence of an
unbalanced force; thus, an accelerating or
rotating frame is not inertial.
Two Postulates of Special Relativity
1. Principle of Relativity/ Invariance of Physics
Laws
Two Postulates of Special Relativity
2. Constancy of the Speed of Light/ Invariance
of the Speed of Light
“The speed of light in a vacuum is constant in all
inertial frames of reference and is independent
of the motion of the source.”
Two Postulates of Special Relativity
2. Constancy of the Speed of Light/ Invariance
of the Speed of Light
• Relativistic Kinematics – covers time dilation,
length contraction, relativistic Doppler effect, and
mass increase.

• Relativistic Dynamics – covers relativistic

mass and momentum, mass-energy
equivalence, and relativistic second law.
Lorentz factor – denoted by the symbol γ; named
after Hendrick Lorentz.
𝟏
𝜸=
𝒖 𝟐
𝟏−
𝒄

where: u is the speed of the object and c is the speed of

light equal to 299 792 458 m/s ≈ 3 x 108 m/s.
Time Dilation
Time Dilation – the time interval between two
events measured by a moving observer who
views these events as occurring in different
places is longer than the time interval measured
by an observer at rest, who views the events as
happening in the same place.
Dilated time interval – time interval measured
by a moving observer; it is longer than proper
time interval
Proper time interval – time interval measured
by an observer at rest
Time Dilation equation:
∆𝒕𝟎
∆𝒕 = = 𝜸∆𝒕𝟎
𝒖 𝟐
𝟏−
𝒄

where: Δt is the dilated time interval, Δt0 is the proper time

interval, u is the speed of relative motion, c is the speed
of light in vacuum, and γ is the Lorentz factor.
Sample Problem: (page 292)
10.11: Leo and Christian are twins. At the age of
30, Leo left for a round trip to a distant star in a
spaceship with a speed of 0.95c relative to
Earth. The whole trip took 20 years according to
the shipboard clock. Find their ages when Leo
returns.
Length Contraction – the length of an object
measured by an observer in an inertial reference
frame that is moving with respect to the object is
less than its proper length as determined by an
observer at rest relative to the object.
Length Contraction equation:

𝒖 𝟐 𝑳𝟎
𝑳 = 𝑳𝟎 𝟏− =
𝒄 𝜸

where: L0 is the proper length, u is the speed of the object,

c is the speed of light, and γ is the Lorentz factor.
Sample Problem: (page 294)

10.12: A spaceship traveling at 0.5c relative to

Earth is 45 m long as measured by its crew.
How long is the spaceship as measured by the
mission control in the Philippines?
Lorentz Transformation
Lorentz Transformation
Motion is relative and depends on the frame of
reference where motion is being observed.
Consider an object being observed in reference
frames S and S’. Frame S’ is moving at constant
velocity v relative to the stationary frame S along
the x-axis. So,

𝒙′ = 𝒙 − 𝒖𝒕 𝒚′ = 𝒚 𝒛′ = 𝒛
Velocity of object along the x-axis as seen in frame S’:
′
𝒗𝒙 − 𝒖
𝒗𝒙 = 𝒗𝒙 𝒖
𝟏− 𝟐
𝒄

Velocity of object along the x-axis as seen in frame S:

𝒗′𝒙 + 𝒖
𝒗𝒙 =
𝒗𝒙 ′𝒖
𝟏+ 𝟐
𝒄
Practice Exercises: (page 297)

10.14: As observed in a control mission on Earth,

satellite A is moving toward satellite B at 0.9c
and satellite B travels at 0.6c toward A. What is
the speed of satellite A as measured from
satellite B?
Relativistic Mass – mass of a moving object at a
speed u approaching that of light in vacuum c
which is greater than its mass, called the rest
mass, when at rest relative to an observer.

Relativistic Mass equation:

𝒎𝟎
𝒎= = 𝜸𝒎𝟎
𝒖 𝟐
𝟏−
𝒄

where : m is the relativistic mass and m0 is the rest mass.

note: It follows that the relativistic momentum p is given by
Mass-Energy Equivalence – principle that states
that anything having mass has an equivalent
amount of energy and vice versa.

where: E is the total energy, m0 is the rest mass, c

is the speed of light in vacuum, and K is the
relativistic kinetic energy. Note: A gain or loss in
mass may be considered a gain or loss in energy.
Relativistic Kinetic Energy equation:

For a particle at rest, v = 0, and it follows that K = 0.

Therefore,

where: E0 is the rest energy.

Relativistic Momentum equation:
𝒎𝟎 𝒗
𝒑= = 𝜸𝒎𝟎 𝒗
𝒗 𝟐
𝟏−
𝒄

where: p is the relativistic momentum, v is the

speed of the object, and c is the speed of light in
vacuum.
Practice Exercises:

Ex 1: An electron is moving at 0.5c. What is the

momentum according to (a) classical mechanics
and (b) special relativity?
Practice Exercises:

Ex 2: A proton has a momentum of 3.34 x 10-19

kgꞏm/s. What is its speed according to (a)
classical mechanics and (b) special relativity?
Practice Exercises:

Ex 2: What must be the speed of an electron for its

relativistic kinetic energy to be equal to its rest
energy?
Practice Exercises:

Ex 1: A microsatellite has a mass of approximately

50 kg. What is its acceleration when launched at
a speed of 0.6c by a force of 5000 N?
Grade 12- STEM STRAND
General Physics 2
At the end of the session, I can:
• discuss comprehensively the concepts of atomic
and nuclear physics through essential/conceptual
questions activity;
• solve correctly problems involving atomic and
nuclear physics through practice exercises;
• perform correctly problem-solving involving atomic
and nuclear physics using the GUESS method of
problem solving; and
• relate concretely the concepts of atomic and nuclear
physics to family spirit and community engagement
and participatory action through class recitation.
Electrons – negatively charged particles in an atom that
orbit around a positively charged nucleus.
Nucleons – particles at the nucleus of an atom.
Protons – positively charged particles in the nucleus.
Neutrons – electrically neutral particles.
Nuclear Structure
A nucleus is represented by the chemical symbol
of a particular element with mass number (A)
and atomic number (Z). In standard notation,
Atomic number – number of protons in the
nucleus of an atom.
Mass number – total number of protons and
neutrons; a.k.a. nucleon number.

note: number of neutrons, represented by N, is A – Z.

Isotopes – atoms having the same atomic number

but different mass numbers
𝟏𝟐 𝟏𝟑 𝟏𝟒
Ex: 𝟔 𝑪, 𝟔𝑪, and 𝟔𝑪
Radius of the nucleus (experimentally found):
−𝟏𝟓 𝟏 Τ𝟑
𝑹 = 𝟏. 𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎 𝒎 𝑨

Assuming that the nucleus is a sphere, its volume

𝟒
𝑽 = 𝟑 𝝅𝒓𝟑 . Then,
𝟒 −𝟏𝟓 𝟏 Τ𝟑 𝟑
𝑽 = 𝝅 𝟏. 𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎 𝐦 𝑨
𝟑

𝑽 = 𝟕. 𝟐𝟒 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟒𝟓 𝐦𝟑 𝑨
Bohr’s Model of the Atom
Neils Bohr – proposed that the atom is like a mini
solar system – the nucleus of the atom is the
sun, and the electrons are the planets.
Bohr’s Model of the Atom
Energy shells or Energy levels – specific
energies that electrons can have when
occupying specific orbitals; electrons move
around the nucleus in orbits of fixed distances
from the nucleus corresponding to fixed
energies.
Bohr’s Model of the Atom
note: energy level increases as the distance from
the nucleus increases.

Radiation can occur only when the electron jumps

from one energy level to another. Furthermore,
they can only gain and lose energy by jumping
from one allowed energy level to another,
absorbing or emitting electromagnetic radiation
in the process.
Absorption and Emission
Max Planck – formulated the
quantum theory; he stated
that light is emitted in quanta.
Quantum (pl. quanta) –
discrete bundle of energy.
Albert Einstein – called
these bundles photons.
Planck’s equation:
𝑬 = 𝒉𝒇

where: h is the Planck’s constant = 6.63 x 10-34 Jꞏs

and f is the frequency of the photon.

note: In quantum mechanics, energy is expressed

in electron volts (eV).
𝟏 𝐞𝐕 = 𝟏. 𝟔𝟎𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟗 𝐉
Ground state – lowest energy state of an atom
Excited state – higher energy states

Absorption – a transition from lower energy state

to a higher energy state
Emission – a downward transition
Note: Absorption and Emission will only happen
if the energy of photon exactly matches the
energy gap between two states.
Energy of emitted photon:
𝒉𝒄
𝒉𝒇 = = 𝑬𝒊 − 𝑬𝒇
𝝀
Energy of absorbed photon:
𝒉𝒄
𝒉𝒇 = = 𝑬𝒇 − 𝑬𝒊
𝝀
where: Ei is the initial energy of the atom before transition,
and Ef is the final energy after the transition.
Photoelectric Effect – emission of electrons or
other free carriers when light hits a material.
note: In photoelectric
effect, the radiation
transfers all of its energy
to a bound electron of an
atom. Some of this
energy is used to
remove the electron
from its shell; while the
rest of the kinetic energy
with which the electron,
called photoelectrons,
leaves the atom.
Photoelectron – electrons emitted from an atom
by interaction with a photon, especially an
electron emitted from a solid surface by the
action of light.

Work function – minimum energy needed to

remove an electron from an atom.
note: photoelectric effect cannot occur unless
the energy of the incident radiation is equal to or
greater than the work function.
Photoelectric Effect equation:
𝒉𝒇 = 𝝓 + 𝑲
where: f is the frequency of radiation, ϕ is the work function
(energy to free an electron), and K is the kinetic energy
of an ejected electron

Threshold frequency – minimum frequency of

radiation at which electrons will be ejected
note: this happens when the kinetic energy of the
electron is zero.
𝝓
𝒇𝟎 =
𝒉
Half-Life and Decay Rate
Half-life – time required for half of the nuclei or
mass present to disintegrate.
𝑵𝟎
𝑵= 𝒏
𝟐

where: N0 is the initial number of nuclei, N is the

number of nuclei remaining, and n is the number
of times the half-life has elapsed.
Half-Life and Decay Rate
note: Since mass of an atom is contained mostly in
the nucleus, half-life may also be written in
terms of mass:
𝒎𝟎
𝒎= 𝒏
𝟐

where: m and m0 are the remaining mass and

initial mass of the atom, respectively.
Practice Exercises:

Ex 1: The half-life or radioactive gold is

approximately three days. It is also given to a
patient for cancer therapy. Suppose that a
patient is given an initial shot of 1.5 g, how much
of it remains after nine days?
Practice Exercises:

Ex 2: A radioactive material has a half-life of eight

days. How long will it take the material to be
reduced to 1/16 of its original mass?
Activity (or Radioactivity) – is the number of
disintegrations or decays per unit time.
SI unit: becquerel (Bq)
𝟏 𝐁𝐪 = 𝟏 𝐝𝐢𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐭𝐞𝐠𝐫𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧/𝐬𝐞𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐝

Another unit is the curie (Ci)

𝟏𝟎
𝟏 𝐂𝐢 = 𝟑. 𝟕 × 𝟏𝟎 𝐁𝐪
If N0 is the original number fo nuclei at t = 0 and N
is the number of nuclei that have not decayed or
disintegrated after some time t, then the number
of disintegrations is the difference between N0
and N. Thus, the activity A is given by,

𝑵𝟎 − 𝑵 ∆𝑵
𝑨=− =−
𝒕−𝟎 𝒕

note: The negative sign means that the number of

radioactive nuclei decreases.
Activity is proportional to the number of radioactive
nuclei that have not disintegrated, that is,
𝑨 = 𝝀𝑵
where: λ is the proportionality constant termed as the
decay constant.
note: The unit of the decay constant must be a reciprocal of
time.
Decay constant:
𝟎. 𝟔𝟗𝟑
𝝀=
𝒕𝟏Τ𝟐
Exponential Decay equation: (for the number of
nuclei N that have not decayed or disintegrated
after some time t)
𝑵 = 𝑵𝟎 𝒆 −𝝀𝒕

where: e is the Euler’s constant approximately equal to

2.718.
note: Since activity is proportional to the number of
radioactive nuclei present, it also follows the same
exponential decay equation.

−𝝀𝒕
𝑨 = 𝑨𝟎 𝒆
Practice Exercises:

Ex 1: A patient suffering from thyroid disorder is

given a certain amount of iodine 𝟏𝟑𝟏 𝟓𝟑𝐈 which has
a half-life of approximately 8.04 days. The
activity of iodine at the time it was administered
to the patient is 5.00 μCi. Find its (a) decay
constant and (b) activity after 20.2 days.
Practice Exercises:

Ex 2: A radioactive sample has a decay constant of

0.2193/min. (a) What is its half-life? (b) If at the
start of an experiment, there are 3.2 x 1015
nuclei present, how much will remain after 1.0
h?