Interference and Diffraction

By: Dr.Neha Kondal

Interference
•In constructive interference the amplitude of the resultant wave is
greater than that of either individual wave.

•In destructive interference the amplitude of the resultant wave is less

than that of either individual wave.
Young’s Double-Slit Experiment:

•Thomas Young first demonstrated interference in

light waves from two sources in 1801.
•The narrow slits S1 and S2 act as sources of
waves.
•The waves emerging from the slits originate from
the same wave front and therefore are always in
phase.

Section 37.1
Interference Patterns Constructive interference

Constructive interference occurs

at point O.
The two waves travel the same
distance.
Therefore, they arrive in phase
As a result, constructive
interference occurs at this point
and a bright fringe is observed.
Interference Patterns

The lower wave has to travel farther

than the upper wave to reach point P.
The lower wave travels one wavelength
farther but trough of upper wave
overlap with trough of other one.
Similiar with the crest
-the waves arrive in phase.
A second bright fringe occurs at this
position.
Interference Patterns
The upper wave travels one-half of a Destructive interference
wavelength farther than the lower wave
to reach point R.
The trough of the upper wave overlaps
the crest of the lower wave.
This is destructive interference.
A “dark fringe” occurs.
Conditions for Interference:
To observe interference in light waves, the following two
conditions must be met:
The sources must be coherent.
They must maintain a constant phase with respect to each
other.
The sources should be monochromatic.
Monochromatic means they have a single wavelength.
Distribution of intensity in young double slit experiment.

Intensity is maximum when  = 0, 2, 4, 6……… 2n

Intensity is minimum when  = 3, 5, ……… (2n+1)
Condition for maximum minimum intensity in terms of path difference
Condition for maximum Condition for minimum  =k x
x = .  x = . 
x = . 2n x = . (2n+1)
x=n x = (2n+1)

Condition for maximum intensity Condition for minimum intensity

Imax = I1 + I2 + 2 Imax = I1 + I2 + 2

Imax = ( + )2 Imin = ( - )2

amax = ( +)2 amin = ( -)2

Numericals:

1. Two coherent sources whose intensity ratio is 81:1

produce interference fringes. Deduce the ration of
maximum intensity to minimum intensity.
2. The ratio of intensity of maxima and minima of
interference fringes is 25:9. Determine the ratio between
the amplitude and intensities of two inference beams.
3. Two coherent monochromatic light beams of intensities I
and 4I are superposed. What is the maximum and
minimum possible intensities in the resulting beams?
Conditions for sustained interference pattern
Observations
1. The phase difference should not change with time.
2. The location of maxima and minima depend upon the wavelength of super
imposing waves so well defined interference pattern can be obtained only when
interferinf waves have some defined wavelength
3. The minimum values of intensity of resulting wave after interference depend
upon the relative value of intensity of light coming from the two sources. The
minimum intensity is zero only when the intensity of light from two sources is
equal. Therefore for a well defined interference pattern the amplitude of
interfering wave should be same.
4. The fringe width depend on separation D between slit and screen. If D is large
fringe width is large i,e width of maximum or minimum will be large. On contrary
if D is very small, Width of maximum and minimum will be small so that we may
not be able to distinguish also.
5. The fringe width depend on separation d between two sources. If d is very large
the width of maxima and minima will be so small hat we wont be able to
For a well defined, permanent and sustained interference pattern on screen we need:
• The light waves from two sources should have a constant phase, same wavelength ,
same state of polarization and should be propagating in same direction. Such sources
are called Coherent sources.

• The separation d between sources and D between source and screen should be
suitably adusted.

• Two sources should be as narrow as possible.

• The interfering waves should have same amplitude

Coherent sources:
Two sources are said to be coherent iff
(a)The light emitted from them is monochromatic and are of same wavelength
(b)The phase of light waves emitted from doesnot vary with time

Division of wavefront
A narrow source and its virtual image or two virtual images of a source
can be used as coherent sources.
Fresnel biprism. Lloyd`s mirror

Division of Amplitude
A same beam of light is partially reflected from two surfaces
perpendicular to each other. The two reflected beams so produced interfere and
are said as coherent sources
newton`s rings Michelson Morley interferometer
 Fresnel Biprism
Augustin-Jean Fresnel was a French physicist who contributed
significantly to the establishment of the wave theory of light and
optics.

He gave a simple
arrangement for the
production of
interference
pattern.
 Prism
A prism is a wedge-shaped transparent body which
causes incident light to be separated by color. The
separation by color occurs since different colors
corresponding to different wavelengths.

It is a device used to refract light, reflect it or

break it up (to disperse it) into its constituent
spectral colours.
 Biprism
It consists of two thin acute angled prisms joined at the bases. It
is constructed as a single prism of obtuse angle of 179º. The
acute angle  on both side is about 30´. A portion of the incident
light is refracted downward and a portion upward.

179º



D=distance between
source of waves &
screen.

d = distance between
virtual sources which are
produced by refraction.
Condition for maxima : Intensity at any point on the screen is
maximum if path difference
∆=nλ ;where n=0,1,2,3…….
Distance of pth maxima : =

Condition for minima : Intensity at any point on the screen is

minimum if path difference
∆=(2n+1)λ/2 where n=0,1,2,3……
Distance of pth minima : =
Expression for fringe width

Measurement of
• Eye piece is so adjusted that widely spaced and distinct
fringes are visible.
• The vertical cross wire is set on one of the brightest fringe
and reading of micrometer screw is moted.
• The cross wire is then moved across the interference pattern
and number of dark and bright fringes are counted.

Suppose n fringes cross the view.

Let the distance of initial and final reading of micrometer be l,
then fringe width is given by

=
 Measurement of
It is the distance between the eyepiece and the upright containing sslit.
It can be easily measured on the linear scale.

Measurement of
• A convex lens of short focal length is mounted on an
upright between prism and eye piece.
• The distance between the source and the eyepiece is
adjusted to be more than 4f.
• The lens is first placed near biprism and its position L1 is
adjusted so that magnified image of S1 and S2 is
produced. Let the distance between two slits be d1
• The lens is then moved towards eye piece till diminished
images of S1 and S2 are again visible in eye piece. The
distance between images is again measures as d2

The distance d is then given by

d =
THE LLOYD’S MIRROR ARRANGEMENT

L’
Light directly coming from the slit S1interferes
with the light reflected from the mirror
forming an Interference pattern in the region
BC of the screen.

For two sources one is real and the other

one is virtual.
 The central fringe will be dark.

Reflected beam undergoes a sudden phase

change of  On reflection.SO at

S2P – S1P = n
We can get minima (destructive interference)
and S2P – S1P = (2n+1)/2

We get maxima (constructive interference)

Using the principle of optical reversibility we
Can say that there will be an abrupt phase change
Of  when light gets reflected by the denser medium

No such phase change occurs when reflection takes

Place at rarer medium.
A Transparent material G of thickness t and
refractive index  is placed in the path of one
beam.

WHAT WILL HAPPEN?

G
 Fringe pattern will remain same

or

Interference fringe pattern will shift

 Light wave from S2 will go directly to P but light wave from S1 will go to P partly through
air and partly through Transparent material G.

Time required for the light to reach from S1 to the point

P is

S1P  t t
T 
C0 C
C0 is the velocity of light in air and C its velocity in the medium

By introducing thin plate the effective optical path

changes.
The time needed for both the path will be same.

S2 P S1P  t t
T   
C0 C0 C

…….(1)
Time required for the light to reach from S1 to the point
P is

S1P  t t
T 
C0 C
C0
since    refractive index
C
S1P  t t S1P  t  t
T   
C0 C0 C0
S1P    1t
 .........(2)
C0
Clearly effective path in air from S1 to P is S1P +(-1)t
So the air path S1P has been increased by S1P +(-1)t
as a result of the introduction of the plate.
S2 P S1P  t t
T    …….(1)
C0 C0 C

S1P    1t
T  .........(2)
C0
So the path difference between the beams reaching
P, from S1 and S2 ()
 path covered by beam from S2 to P - path
covered by beam from S1to P
 S 2 P  [ S1P  t  t ]
 S 2 P  S1P  (   1)t
If there is no transparent plate then we know the path diff

yn d
S2 P  S1P 
D
So the path difference will be
yn d
    1t
D
If P is the centre of the nth bright fringe, then

yn d
   1t  n
D
yn d
  n    1t
D
D
 yn  n    1t 
d
 At n = 0 the shift y0 of central bright fringe is

D
y0    1t
d

It means that the introduction of the plate in the path

Of one of the interfering beams displaces the entire
Fringe system through a distance
D
  1t
d
This displacement is towards the beam in the path of which
The plate is introduced.
So central fringe at C is shifted from C to point P on
The screen on insertion of transparent plate
material Of refractive index 

Knowing the distance through which the central

fringe is shifted, D, d and  the thickness of the
material t can be calculated.
 We have to use white light to determine the
thickness of the material.

For monochromatic light central fringe will similar to

other bright bright fringe. For white light central fringe
is white.
Phase change on Reflection,
Refraction
 Principle of optical reversibility

In the absence of any absorption, a light ray that

is reflected or refracted will retrace its original
path if its direction is reversed.
 Thickness approx. 0.5μm – 10 μm

Thin Film • Transparent glass

• mica
• air film between two transparent
plates
INCIDENT RAY REFLECTED RAY

μ =1

TRANSMITTED RAY
Two beams interference

S1
S2
 Interference due to reflected light
Consider a transparent film of uniform thickness t
Material has a refractive index μ

Geometric path difference between two rays

= BF + FD – BH

Optical path difference a

a = μ(BF + FD ) -1(BH)
In  BFG: cos r =

a = μ () - BH
Calculate BH ?
In  BGF,
tan r =
BD = 2 BG = 2t(tanr)

HBD = 90-i
 BHD = 90
BDH = i

So, BHD: sin i =

BH = BD * sin I
BH = 2t(tanr)μsinr
Hence a = 2μt cos r
a = μ () - 2t(tanr)μsinr
 Correction on account of phase change at reflection

When a ray is reflected at the boundary of a rarer medium to denser medium, a path
changes by occurs for the ray BC. There is no path difference due to transmission at D.
So including the path difference due to reflection the true path difference is

a = 2μt cosr -

Condition for maxima Condition for minima

n = 2μt cosr -  = 2μt cosr -

(2n+1) = 2μt cosr = 2μt cosr

Condition for brightness Condition for darkness
 Thin Film Interference

Thin film
interference is
caused by…

…phase difference
of reflected waves
due to path length
differences…

http://www.photographyblog.com/gallery/showphoto.php?photo=5545

…and phase difference of reflected waves due to reflection off a

higher-n material.
Newton’s Rings
 A B
Plano convex lens

Air film

P Q
O

Glass plate

Thickness of air film is zero at point of contact O.

 Reflected light
C

Air film

Circular interference fringes are formed by reflected light

 Microscope
45º

S
glass

Lens

Air film

Glass plate
 Interference occurs between the light reflected
from the lower surface of the lens and the upper
surface of the glass plate G.

Since the convex side of the lens is a spherical

surface, the thickness of the air film will be cons-
tant over a circle (whose centre will be at O ) and
we will obtain concentric dark and bright rings.

Newton’s rings
Condition for bright ring will be

2t cos r  (2n  1)
2
For air film ,  =1 and for near normal incidence r is very
small and hence cos r = 1
Thus,

2t  (2n  1)
2
Where n = 0,1,2,3….
For dark rings,

2t cos r  n
Again for air film  = 1 and for small r we have
Condition for dark rings,

2 t  n
 O

R
R - tn

A B
tn tn
M N

rn
R = radius of curvature of lens
t = thickness of air film at a
distance AB =rn
OA = R - t
From OAB

R2 = (R – t)2+rn2

Þrn2 = R2 - (R – t)2 = R2 - R2 –t2 +2Rt = 2Rt – t2

As R>>t , rn2 = 2Rt

 t = r 2/2R
So condition for bright rings
2t = (2n+1)/2
2
2r 
or, n
 (2n  1)
2R 2
2 (2n  1)R
 rn 
2

 rn 
2n  1R
2

 Diameter D n  2
2n  1R
2
n = 0,1,2,3,….
 Similarly for dark rings,
2t  n
2
r
2  n
n n = 0,1,2,3,….
2R
 rn  nR
Diameter of dark rings,
D n  2rn  2 nR
 CENTER IS DARK

At n = 0, radius of dark ring = 0.

R
radius of bright ring =
2
Alternately dark and bright rings will be produced.

The spacing between second and third dark rings

is smaller than the spacing between the first and
second one.
 Consider the diameter of dark rings

D1  2 1R  2 R
D 2  2 2R  2 2R
D3  2 3R  2 3R
D 4  2 4R  4 R Four fringes

D 4  D1  2 R
 D 9  2 9 R  6  R
D16  2 16R  8 R
D16  D9  2 R  8 fringes
Fringe width decreases with the order of the
Fringe and fringes get closer with increase in
their order.
 Wavelength determination

Radius of the nth dark ring rn is given by

2
r  n R
n
2
D
  n R
n
4
2
 D n  4nR.....(1)
Similarly for (n+m)th dark band
D 2
n m  4n  m R....(2)
(2) – (1)

D 2
nm  D  4n  m R  4nR
2
n

 4mR

2 2
D D
 n m n
4mR
 Suppose diameter of 6th and 16th ring are
Determined then, m = 16-6 = 10

2 2
So
D D
 16 6
4 10  R
Radius of curvature can be accurately measured
with the help of a spherometer and therefore
by measuring the diameter of dark or bright ring
you can experimentally determine the wavelength.
Newton’s rings with transmitted light
Transmitted light
Condition for bright fringes
2t cos r  n
Condition for dark fringes

2t cos r  (2n  1)
2
For air as thin film and near normal incidence
 = 1 and cosr = 1
So for bright fringes, 2t = n
2n  1
For dark fringes, 2t  
2
 2
But we know that
r
t , r = radius of ring
2R
For bright rings
2
2r
 n  r  nR
2R
For dark rings
2
2r  (2n  1)R
 (2n  1) r
2R 2 2
If we put n = 0 then r = 0 for the bright ring

So for Newton's rings for transmitted rays the

central ring will be bright.

CENTRAL RING IS BRIGHT.

 WAVELENGTH DETERMINATION

We know radius of the nth dark ring rn is

2
r  nR
n
2
D
  n R
n
4
2
 D n  4nR …….(1)
Similarly,
2
D n m  4( n  m )  R ……..(2)

(2) – (1)
2 2
D n m  D  4( n  m )  R  4 n R
n

 4mR ……..(3)
2 2
D D
 nm n
4mR
Suppose diameter of the 8th and 18th ring are
Determined then,
m = 18-8 =10 and

2 2
D D
 18 8
4  10  R
 Refractive index determination

air

Diameter of the dark rings

2
D  4mR
n
 2
D n m  4( n  m )  R
2 2
D n m  D  4(n  m)R  4nR
n

 4mR

Liquid of refractive index 

 (for near normal incidence and g<

Condition for dark ring formation

'2
r n
2t n  n but t n 
2R
'2
r n '2 nR
 2  n  r n 
2R 
2
D '
 nR '2 4 n R
  n
   Dn  …..(4)
 2   
 Similarly we can get
'2 4(n  m)R …….(5)
D nm 


So, (5) – (4)

'2 4mR
'2
D D 
n m n …….(6)

4mR
   '2 '2
D n m  D n
This is the value of  if  is known.
 Can also be determine if  is unknown
We have from equation (3) and (6)
2 2
D n m  D  4(n  m)R  4nR
n

 4mR ……..(3)

'2 4mR
'2
D nm D  n …….(6)

Divide (3)/(6)

2 2
D D
 n m
'2
n
'2
D n m D n