B.

TECH FIRST YEAR

ACADEMIC YEAR: 2020-2021

COURSE NAME: ENGINEERING PHYSICS

COURSE CODE : PY1001
LECTURE SERIES NO : 01 (ONE)
CREDITS : 4
MODE OF DELIVERY : ONLINE (POWER POINT PRESENTATION)
FACULTY : DR. NILANJAN HALDER
EMAIL-ID : nilanjan.halder@jaipur.manipal.edu
DATE OF DELIVERY: 2 November 2020
 “UNDERSTAND THE
SESSION OUTCOME BASIC PRINCIPLES OF
WAVE OPTICS”
ASSIGNMENT
QUIZ
MID TERM EXAMINATION –I
END TERM EXAMINATION
ASSESSMENT CRITERIA’S
 Diffraction
Topics
 Diffraction and wave theory of light
 Single-slit diffraction
 Intensity in single-slit diffraction
 Diffraction at a circular aperture
 Double-slit interference and diffraction
combined
 Multiple slits
 Diffraction gratings
 Dispersion and resolving power
 X-ray diffraction
Text Book:
PHYSICS VOL 2 by Halliday, Resnick and Krane
 Diffraction v/s Interference
 Bending of light around the obstacle.
 The interfering beam originate from
continuous distribution of sources
(Huygens’ principle).
 The waves emerging from different
paths of the same wave front
superimpose with each other to
produce Diffraction pattern.
 The width of the diffraction fringes are
not equal.
 Minimum intensity point will not be
perfectly dark
 Bright fringes in the diffraction pattern
are not of same intensity.
 Meeting of two waves.
 The interfering beam originate from
discrete number of sources.
 The superposition of waves coming
from two different wave front
originating from the same source,
produce Interference pattern.
 The width of the interference fringes
may/ may not be equal.
 Minimum intensity point will be
perfectly dark.
 Bright fringes in the interference
pattern are of uniform intensity.
 DIFFRACTION AND WAVE THEORY OF LIGHT

The phenomenon of bending of light around the edges of

obstacles or slits, and hence its encroachment into the region
of geometrical shadow is known as diffraction.
For diffraction effects to be noticeable, the size of the object
causing diffraction should have dimensions comparable to the
wavelength of light falling on the object.

Diffraction pattern of razor blade viewed in

monochromatic light
 DIFFRACTION AND WAVE THEORY OF LIGHT
• Diffraction pattern occurs when coherent wave-fronts of light
fall on opaque barrier B, which contains an aperture of
arbitrary shape. The diffraction pattern can be seen on screen
C.
• When C is very close to B a geometric shadow is observed
because the diffraction effects are negligible.
 DIFFRACTION AND WAVE THEORY OF LIGHT

Ꙫ A single slit placed between a distant light source and a

screen produces a diffraction pattern.
Ꙫ It will have a broad, intense central band called the
central maximum
Ꙫ The central band will be flanked by a series of narrower,
less intense secondary bands called side maxima or
secondary maxima
Ꙫ The central band will also be bordered by a series of
dark bands called minima.
Ꙫ The diffraction pattern consists of the central maximum
and a series of secondary maxima and minima.
Ꙫ The pattern is similar to an interference pattern as
shown in figure.
 DIFFRACTION AND WAVE THEORY OF LIGHT
• Both the incident and emergent
wave-fronts are plane (the rays are
parallel) i.e., both the source and the
screen are effectively at infinite
distances, from the aperture causing
diffraction.
• Fraunhofer diffraction is a special
limiting case of the more general
Fresnel diffraction.
• In laboratory Fraunhofer diffraction
is realized by using converging lenses
for conversion of spherical wavefront
into plane wavefront and vice versa.
 DIFFRACTION AND WAVE THEORY OF LIGHT

• The incident wave fronts

are spherical or
cylindrical. i.e., the
source of light is at a finite
distance from the
diffracting aperture. The
screen on which the
diffraction pattern is
displayed is also at a finite
distance from the
diffracting aperture.
 SINGLE-SLIT DIFFRACTION

All the diffracted rays arriving at P0 are in-phase.

Hence they interfere constructively and produce maximum
(central maximum) of intensity I0 at P0.
 SINGLE-SLIT DIFFRACTION

⁕ The finite width of slits is the basis for understanding Fraunhofer diffraction.
⁕ According to Huygens’s principle, each portion of the slit acts as a source of light waves.
⁕ Therefore, light from one portion of the slit can interfere with light from another portion.
⁕ The diffraction pattern is actually an interference pattern.
⁕ The different sources of light are different portions of the single slit.
 SINGLE-SLIT DIFFRACTION
At point P1,

path difference between r1

and r2 is
(a/2) sin
So the condition for first minimum,
a 
sin  
2 2
or a sin   
This is satisfied for every pair of rays, one of which is from upper half
of the slit and the other is a corresponding ray from lower half of the
slit.
 SINGLE-SLIT DIFFRACTION

At point P2,
path difference between
r1 and r2 is (a/4) sin
So the condition for second minimum,
a 
sin   or a sin   2
4 2
This is satisfied for every pair of rays, separated by a distance a/4.
In general, the condition for m TH minima,
a sin   m m   1,  2,  3, . . .
There is a secondary maximum approximately half way between
each adjacent pair of minima.
 SINGLE-SLIT DIFFRACTION
Problem: 1

A slit of width a is illuminated by white light. For what value

of a does the minimum for red light ( = 650nm) fall at  =
15o?
 SINGLE-SLIT DIFFRACTION
Problem: 2
In P-1, what is the wavelength ’ of the light whose first
diffraction maximum (not counting the central maximum)
falls at 15o, thus coinciding with the first minimum of red
light?
 SINGLE-SLIT DIFFRACTION
Problem: E42-5

A single slit is illuminated by light whose wavelengths are

a and b, so chosen that the first diffraction minimum of a
component coincides with the second minimum of the b
component.
(a) What is the relationship between the two
wavelengths?
(b) Do any other minima in the two patterns coincide?
 INTENSITY IN SINGLE – SLIT DIFFRACTION
• Aim is to find an expression for the intensity of the entire
pattern as a function of the diffraction angle.
• The phase difference between two waves arriving at point P
from two points on the slit (with separation x) is,

2
  x sin 

 INTENSITY IN SINGLE – SLIT DIFFRACTION

Phasor showing
a) Central maximum
b) A direction slightly shifted
from central maximum
c) First minimum
d) First maximum beyond the
central maximum
(corresponds to N = 18)
 INTENSITY IN SINGLE – SLIT DIFFRACTION
From diagram,

E  2 R sin
2
Em
Also  
R
Combining,
Em 
E  sin
 2
2
sin 
Or , E  Em


where  
2
 INTENSITY IN SINGLE – SLIT DIFFRACTION

 is the phase difference

between rays from the top
and bottom of the slit.
So we can write,
2
 a sin 

 a
So,    sin 
2 
 INTENSITY IN SINGLE – SLIT DIFFRACTION
2
2  sin  
The intensity    E 2  Em  
  
2
 sin   2
   m   where  m  Em is the max. intensity
  
From the above eqn., for minima, sin  0
   m  where m  1,2,3,.....
or, a sin   m  where m  1,2,3,.....
 INTENSITY IN SINGLE – SLIT DIFFRACTION

The intensity distribution in

single-slit diffraction for three
different values of the ratio a/
 INTENSITY IN SINGLE – SLIT DIFFRACTION
Problem: SP42-3

Calculate, approximately, the relative intensities of the

maxima in the single slit Fraunhofer diffraction pattern.
 INTENSITY IN SINGLE – SLIT DIFFRACTION
Problem: SP42-4

Find the width  of the central maximum in a single slit

Fraunhofer diffraction. The width can be represented as the
angle between the two points in the pattern where the
intensity is one-half that at the center of the pattern.
 INTENSITY IN SINGLE – SLIT DIFFRACTION
Problem: E42-11

Monochromatic light with wavelength 538 nm falls on a slit

with width 25.2m. The distance from the slit to a screen is
3.48m. Consider a point on the screen 1.13cm from the
central maximum. Calculate (a)  (b)  (c) ratio of the
intensity at this point to the intensity at the central
maximum.
DIFFRACTION AT A CIRCULAR APERTURE

DIFFRACTION PATTERN DUE TO A CIRCULAR APERTURE

 DIFFRACTION AT A CIRCULAR APERTURE
The mathematical analysis of diffraction by a circular aperture
shows that the first minimum occurs at an angle from the

central axis given by sin   1.22
d
where d is the diameter of aperture.
The equation for first minimum in single slit diffractio n is

sin  
a
where a is the slit width
In case of circular aperture, the factor 1.22 arises when we divide the
aperture into elementary Huygens sources and integrate over the
aperture.
 DIFFRACTION AT A CIRCULAR APERTURE
Raleigh’s criterion for optical resolution: The images of two closely
spaced sources is said to be just resolved if the angular separation of
the two point sources is such that the central maximum of the
diffraction pattern of one source falls on the first minimum of the
diffraction pattern of the other.
 
R  sin11.22  R is the smallest angular
 d
since R is very small, it can be appoximate d as separation for which we
 can resolve the images of
R  1.22
d two objects.

a. Not resolved
b. Just resolved
c. Well resolved
 DIFFRACTION AT A CIRCULAR APERTURE
Problem: SP42-5

A converging lens 32mm in diameter has a focal length f of 24

cm. (a) What angular separation must two distant point
objects have to satisfy Rayleigh’s criterion? Assume that  =
550nm. (b) How far apart are the centers of the diffraction
patterns in the focal plane of the lens?
DOUBLE-SLIT INTERFERENCE AND DIFFRACTION COMBINED
DOUBLE-SLIT INTERFERENCE AND DIFFRACTION COMBINED

Interference

I  , INT  I m, INT cos 2

β 

Diffraction 2
 sin α 
I  , DIF   m, DIF  α 
 

Interference + Diffraction
2
 sin α 
I  m cos  2
 
 α 
DOUBLE-SLIT INTERFERENCE AND DIFFRACTION COMBINED

Each of the two slits is divided into N zones. Electric field at P is

found by adding the phasors. There is phase difference of  =
/N between each of the N phasors where  is the phase
difference between1st phasor and Nth phasor.
DOUBLE-SLIT INTERFERENCE AND DIFFRACTION COMBINED

Adding all the phasors, we get the resultant E 1 due to the first slit.
 is the phase difference between the light waves at the point P,
emitted from bottom edge of the first slit and top edge of the
second slit. E2 is the resultant due to the second slit. E  is the
resultant of E1 and E2.
DOUBLE-SLIT INTERFERENCE AND DIFFRACTION COMBINED
From the figure,

E   2E1 sin
2
 
where       
2 2
or     (   )
    
Also sin  sin    cos  .........( A )
2 2 2   2 
 
and  ( d  a) sin 
2 
 a
Adding  sin  to both sides of above eqn, we get,
2 
 
 d sin  which is 
2 
DOUBLE-SLIT INTERFERENCE AND DIFFRACTION COMBINED
Substituti ng this in eqn( A ), we get,

sin  cos 
2
From sin gle  slit diffractio n, we have,
the electric amplitude at P due to one slit,
 sin  
E1  Em  
  
  sin  
 E   2E1 sin ie, E   (2Em )  cos 
2   
2
 sin  
     m (cos )2  
  
DOUBLE-SLIT
SINGLE-SLIT DIFFRACTION
INTERFERENCE PATTERN
PATTERN
DOUBLE-SLIT INTERFERENCE AND DIFFRACTION COMBINED

Problem: SP42- 6

Ina double slit experiment, the distance D of the screen

from the slits is 52cm, the wavelength is 480nm, slit
separation d is 0.12mm and the slit width a is 0.025mm.
a) What is the spacing between adjacent fringes?
b) What is the distance from the central maximum to the
first minimum of the fringe envelope?
DOUBLE-SLIT INTERFERENCE AND DIFFRACTION COMBINED

Problem: SP42- 7

What requirements must be met for the central maximum

of the envelope of the double-slit interference pattern to
contain exactly 11 fringes?
MULTIPLE SLITS

Multiple slit arrangement

will be the interference
pattern multiplied by the
single slit diffraction
envelope. This assumes
that all the slits are
identical.
MULTIPLE SLITS

Condition for principal

maxima,
d sin  = m 
where d is the
separation between
adjacent slits.
Location of principal
maxima is independent
of number of slits.
MULTIPLE SLITS

Intensity pattern for

(a) Two-slit diffraction
(b) Five-slit diffraction
(diffraction effect is
neglected)
MULTIPLE SLITS
Width of the maxima: Central maximum
 The pattern contains central maximum with minima on
either side.
 At the location of central maximum, the phase difference
between the waves from the adjacent slits is zero.
 At minima, the phase difference is such that,

2
  where N is the number of slits
N

 Corresponding path difference is,

   
L    
 2  N
MULTIPLE SLITS

Width of the maxima: Central maximum

   
L    
 2  N

 Also we know,
L  d sin 0
 From the equation, for given  and
 d sin 0
N d if we increase number of slits (N),
 then the angular width of principal
sin 0 
Nd maximum decreases. ie the
 principal maximum becomes
0  sharper.
Nd
MULTIPLE SLITS
Width of the maxima: Other principal maxima

For the mth principal

maximum at  by a
grating: d sin = m .
For the first minimum
at  +  after the mth
principal maximum

λ
d sin θ  θ   mλ 
N
MINIMUM AT θ
+θ

mth PRINCIPAL
MAXIMUM AT θ
MULTIPLE SLITS
Width of the maxima: Other principal maxima
λ
d sin θ  θ   mλ 
N
  
d sin  cos
    cos  sin
    m  N
 1   
d     d cos 
 sin  m   N

m  d cos    m   N
 ANGULAR HALF WIDTH OF mTH
 
N d cos  PRINCIPAL MAXIMUM AT 

The principal maximum become sharper as

MINIMUM AT θ
number of slits (N) increases +θ

mth PRINCIPAL
MAXIMUM AT θ
MULTIPLE SLITS

Problem: SP43- 1

A certain grating has 104 slits with a spacing of d = 2100 nm.

It is illuminated with yellow sodium light ( = 589 nm). Find
(a) the angular position of all principal maxima observed
and (b) the angular width of the largest order maximum.
MULTIPLE SLITS

Problem: E43-5

Light of wavelength 600 nm is incident normally on a

diffraction grating. Two adjacent principal maxima occur at sin
 = 0.20 and sin  = 0.30. The fourth order is missing. (a) what
is the separation between adjacent slits? (b) what is the
smallest possible individual slit width? (c) Name all orders
actually appearing on the screen with the values derived in (a)
and (b).
DIFFRACTION GRATINGS
 The diffraction grating, a useful device for
analyzing light sources, consists of a large number
of equally spaced parallel slits.
 A transmission grating can be made by cutting
parallel grooves on a glass plate with a precision
ruling machine. The spaces between the grooves
are transparent to the light and hence act as
separate slits.
 A reflection grating can be made by cutting
parallel grooves on the surface of a reflective
material. The reflection of light from the spaces
between the grooves is specular, and the
reflection from the grooves cut into the material
is diffuse.
DIFFRACTION GRATINGS

Grating spectrometer

m=0 m=1 m=2 m=3

Sample spectra of visible light emitted by a gaseous source

DIFFRACTION GRATINGS

Problem: SP43-2

A diffraction grating has 1.20 x 104 rulings uniformly

spaced over W= 2.50cm. It is illuminated at normal
incidence by yellow light from sodium vapor lamp which
contains two closely spaced lines of wavelengths 589.0nm
and 589.59nm. (a) At what angle will the first order
maximum occur for the first of these wavelengths? (b)
What is the angular separation between the first order
maxima of these lines? (c) How close in wavelength can
two lines be (in first order) and still be resolved by this
grating? (d) How many rulings can a grating have and just
resolve the sodium doublet lines?
DIFFRACTION GRATINGS

Problem: E43-9

Given a grating with 400 rulings/mm, how many orders of

the entire visible spectrum (400-700nm) can be produced?

A grating has 315 rulings / mm. For what wavelengths in the

visible spectrum can fifth-order diffraction be observed?
DIFFRACTION GRATINGS

Problem: E43-11

White light (400 nm <  < 700 nm) is incident on a grating .

Show that, no matter what the value of the grating spacing d,
the second- and third-order spectra overlap.
 DISPERSION AND RESOLVING POWER

The ability of a grating to produce spectra that permit precise

measurement of wavelengths is determined by two intrinsic
properties of the grating, (1) Dispersion (2) Resolving power
Dispersion

Dispersion is useful quantity in distinguishing wavelengths that are

close to each other, a grating must spread apart the diffraction lines
associated with the various wavelengths.
Angular separation between spectral lines
Dispersion 
Difference between wavelength of spectral lines
Δθ
D 
Δλ
DISPERSION AND RESOLVING POWER
Dispersion
Δθ
D 
Δλ
d sin = m 
Differentiating the above equation,
d cos   = m 

Δθ m
D 
Δλ d cos θ
To achieve higher dispersion we must use a grating of smaller
grating spacing and work in higher order m .
DISPERSION AND RESOLVING POWER
Resolving power
Ability of the grating to resolve two nearby spectral lines so that
the two Lines can be viewed or photographed as separate lines.
To resolve lines whose wavelengths are close together, the lines
should be as narrow as possible.
For two close spectral lines of wavelength 1 and 2, just
resolved by the grating, the resolving power is defined as

 1   2
R   1  2 
 2
DISPERSION AND RESOLVING POWER
Resolving power
We have,
Δθ m 
D   
Δλ d cos θ N d cos 
Putting second equation in first equation,

  
 
 N d cos   
m
 d cos 

R  Nm

Resolving power increases with increasing N
DISPERSION AND RESOLVING POWER Intensity patterns of two close
lines due to three gratings A, B, C.
Resolving power
N = 5,000
d = 10 m
R = 5,000
D = 1.0 x 10-4 rad/m

N = 5,000
d = 5 m
R = 5,000
D = 2.0 x 10-4 rad/m

N = 10,000
d = 10 m
R = 10,000
D = 1.0 x 10-4 rad/m
DISPERSION AND RESOLVING POWER
Problem: SP43-3

A grating has 9600 lines uniformly spaced over a width

3cm and is illuminated by mercury light.
a) What is the expected dispersion in the third order, in
the vicinity of intense green line ( = 546nm)?
b) What is the resolving power of this grating in the fifth
order?
DISPERSION AND RESOLVING POWER
Problem: SP43-4

A diffraction grating has 1.20 X 104 rulings uniformly spaced

over a width W = 2.50cm. It is illuminated at normal
incidence by yellow light from a sodium vapor lamp. This
light contains two closely spaced lines of wavelengths 589.0
nm and 589.59 nm. (a) At what angle does the first
maximum occur for the first of these wavelengths? (b) What
is the angular separation between these two lines (1 st
order)? (c) How close in wavelength can two lines be (in first
order) and still be resolved by this grating? (d) How many
rulings can a grating have and just resolve the sodium
doublet line?
DISPERSION AND RESOLVING POWER
Problem: E43-17

The sodium doublet in the spectrum of sodium is s pair of

lines with wavelengths 589.0 and 589.6 nm. Calculate the
minimum number of rulings in a grating needed to resolve
this doublet in the second-order spectrum.
DISPERSION AND RESOLVING POWER
Problem: E43-21

In a particular grating, the sodium doublet is viewed in

third order at 10.2 to the normal and is barely resolved.
Find (a) the ruling spacing and (b) the total width of
grating.
X-RAY DIFFRACTION

For the observation of diffraction phenomenon by grating, the

grating space should have the dimension of the wavelength of
the wave diffracted. Since the x-ray wavelength and the inter-
planar spacing in crystals are of the same order, a crystal can
be a suitable grating for observing the diffraction of x-rays.

x-ray diffraction
producing Laue’s
pattern
X-ray tube
 X-RAY DIFFRACTION
 When a monoenergetic x-ray beam is
incident on a sample of a single crystal,
diffraction occurs resulting in a pattern
consisting of an array of symmetrically
arranged diffraction spots, called Laue’s
spots.
 The single crystal acts like a grating
with a grating constant comparable
with the wavelength of x-rays, making A Laue pattern of a
the diffraction pattern distinctly visible. single crystal.
 Since the diffraction pattern is decided Each dot
by the crystal structure, the study of represents a
the diffraction pattern helps in the point of
analysis of the crystal parameters. constructive
interference.
X-RAY DIFFRACTION

A plane through a crystal of NaCl

NaCl crystal (a0 = 0.563nm)

NaCl unit cell

 X-RAY DIFFRACTION

(a) Electron density contour of an organic molecule

(b) A structural representation of same molecule

The x-rays are diffracted by the electron concentrations in the

material. By studying the directions of diffracted x-ray beam, we
can study the basic symmetry of the crystal. By studying the
intensity, we can learn how the electrons are distributed in a unit
cell.
 X-RAY DIFFRACTION
Bragg’s Law
 In every crystal, several sets of parallel planes called the Bragg
planes can be identified.
 Each of these planes have an identical and a definite
arrangement of atoms.
 Different sets of Bragg planes are oriented at different angles
and are characterized by different inter planar distances d.
X-RAY DIFFRACTION
Bragg’s Law
q Glancing angle. ie angle
between the incident x-ray beam
and the reflecting crystal planes.
For constructive interference of
diffracted x-rays the path
difference for the rays from the
adjacent planes, (abc in the
figure) must be an integral
number of wavelength.
ie 2d sin  = n 
X-RAY DIFFRACTION

Problem: SP43-5

At what angles must an x-ray

beam with wavelength = 0.110
nm fall on the family of planes
in figure if a diffracted beam is
to exist? Assume material to
be sodium chloride (a0 =
0.563nm)
X-RAY DIFFRACTION

Problem: E43-25

A beam of x-rays of wavelength 29.3 pm is incident on a

calcite crystal of lattice spacing 0.313 nm. Find the smallest
angle between the crystal planes and the beam that will
result in constructive reflection of the x-rays.
QUESTIONS – DIFFRACTION
 
Discuss the diffraction due to single-slit. Obtain the
locations of the minima and maxima qualitatively.
 
Obtain an expression for the intensity in single-slit
diffraction pattern, using phasor-diagram.
 
Calculate, approximately, the relative intensities of the first
three secondary maxima in the single-slit diffraction
pattern.
 
Discuss qualitatively diffraction at a circular aperture.
QUESTIONS – DIFFRACTION
 
Explain Rayleigh’s criterion for resolving images due to a
circular apperture.
 
Obtain an expression for the intensity in double-slit
diffraction pattern, using phasor-diagram.
 
Discuss qualitatively the diffraction due to multiple slits
(eg, 5 slits).
 
Obtain an expression for the width of the central
maximum in diffraction pattern due to multiple slits.
QUESTIONS – DIFFRACTION
 
Obtain an expression for the width of a principal
maximum at an angle in diffraction pattern due to
multiple slits.
 
Obtain an expression for dispersion by a diffraction
grating.
 
Obtain an expression for resolving power of a diffraction
grating.
 
Discuss Bragg’s law for X-ray diffraction.