Ministère de l’enseignement Supérieur Ministry of higher education

Université de Yaoundé I University of Yaoundé I

Ecole Nationale Supérieure National Advanced School of
Polytechnique Engineering
Département de Génie INDUSTRIEL ET Department of INDUSTRIAL AND
MECANIQUE MECHANICAL Engineering

COURSE : Thermal Metrology

PROJET

PRESENTED BY :

 ATEH ARMSTRONG AKOTEH MATRICULE (21P701)

Elaboré par :

 BOULO EDOUARD

 ENSEIGNANT
TONTSA TSIAZOK LIONEL : PR. KANMOGNE

Academic Year 2021/2022

Année académique 2019/2020

 I. SPEED BY LASER DOPPLER VELOCIMETRY
The principle of laser Doppler velocimetry is based on measuring the Doppler shift of light
scattered by a moving seed particle (Degrez et al., 1997). Consider a particle with velocity
modulus U illuminated by laser light of frequency f0 and wavelength λ0 propagating in the
direction. According to a direction of observation, the light is diffused with a frequency fs and
a wavelength λs. A photomultiplier is placed in this direction and will collect and multiply the
intensity of the light scattered by the moving particle. The Doppler shift is then:𝑒⃗⃗𝑖 ⃗⃗⃗
𝑒𝑠 ⃗⃗⃗
𝑒𝑠

fD = fs - f0

The relative speed between the incident light wave planes, of celerity c = f0λ0 and the particle
being , the frequency of interception of the wave planes by the moving particle is therefore:𝑐 −
⃗ . ⃗⃗𝑒𝑖
𝑈

𝑐−𝑈⃗ . ⃗⃗𝑒𝑖 ⃗ . ⃗⃗𝑒𝑖

𝑈
𝑓′ = = 𝑓0 −
𝜆0 𝜆0
The photomultiplier receives the light scattered along the direction at the frequency fs such
that:𝑒⃗⃗⃗𝑠

𝑐−𝑈⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗
𝑒𝑠 ⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗
𝑈 𝑒𝑠
𝑓′ = = 𝑓0 −
𝜆𝑠 𝜆𝑠
From where
⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗
𝑈 𝑒𝑠 𝑒
⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗𝑒
𝑓𝑠 = 𝑓 ′ + ⃗ .( 𝑠 − 𝑖)
= 𝑓0 + 𝑈
𝜆𝑠 𝜆𝑠 𝜆0
As , it comes:𝜆𝑠 ≈ 𝜆0
⃗
𝑈
𝑓𝑠 = 𝑓0 + . (𝑒⃗⃗⃗ − ⃗⃗𝑒𝑖 )
𝜆0 𝑠
The Doppler shift frequency is therefore:
⃗
𝑈
𝑓𝐷 = 𝑓𝑠 − 𝑓0 = . (𝑒⃗⃗⃗ − ⃗⃗𝑒𝑖 )
𝜆0 𝑠
Note that the flow velocity is linear with respect to the Doppler frequency fD and depends solely
on this frequency. In practice f0 and fs are on the order of 1014 Hz while fD is on the order of
106 to 107 Hz. A direct measurement of fs to obtain fD is impossible as it would require an
instrument with a resolution of 10–8 to only get 10% accuracy. The measurement is therefore
not direct and the Doppler shift is obtained by performing a signal difference according to
different types of assembly.

A. Establishment of the physical equation

We start by setting the different notations:
𝑓0 : frequency of the transmitted wave
𝑓1 : frequency of the received wave

𝐸⃗ : unit vector in the direction of the propagation of the emitted wave

𝑅⃗ : unit vector in the direction of measurement

⃗ : velocity vector of the particle
𝑉

figure-1: calculation scheme

The calculations are made in a non-relativistic case (the fluid, therefore the particles, has a
low speed compared to that of light) and based on the results obtained [1], shows that:
 the particle receives a wave at the apparent frequency (case of a stationary transmitter
and a mobile receiver). The wave is diffused at this frequency in the reference frame
⃗ .𝐸⃗
𝑉
of the particle.𝑓𝑖 = 𝑓0 . (1 − )
𝑐
1 ⃗ .𝑅
𝑉 ⃗
 the receiver then receives a wave at the frequency𝑓1 = 𝑓𝑖 ( ⃗𝑉
⃗ ⃗𝑅
⃗ ) = 𝑓𝑖 . (1 + )
1− 𝑐
𝑐
(case of a stationary receiver and a mobile transmitter).
By expanding this expression, we finally find
 ⃗ . (𝑅⃗ − 𝐸⃗ )
𝑉
𝑓1 − 𝑓0 = 𝑓0 .
𝑐
Knowing that , and knowing that where α is a determinable proportionality coefficient.𝜆 =
𝑐
⃗ . (R
Δ𝑓 = 𝑓1 − 𝑓2 V ⃗ −E
⃗ ) = αV
𝑓0

We thus obtain:𝚫𝐟 = 𝛂𝐕/𝛌

B. The principle of measurement
Light (of wavelengthλ) backscattered by a moving object undergoes a change in frequency
as a function of the speed V (Doppler effect). Thanks to an interferometer we can measure this
frequency setting Δf with great precision. Thus we deduce the speed by the equation :

𝐕 = ∆𝐟 × 𝛌/𝛂

Assembly
We can distinguish on the diagram:
 The source of the wave which is then diffused in a plane;
 The flow that crosses the plane of the wave;
 The wave scattered by the particles;
 The system that measures the frequency of the scattered wave;
 The system that compares frequencies.

figure-2: device for measuring speed by doppler laser

II. FLOW MEASUREMENT BY VENTURI TUBE

It is a device which makes it possible to obtain the measurement of the volume flow rate of a
fluid in a pipe thanks to the measurement of the difference in level h between the levels of liquid
in a so-called Venturi tube placed at the reduction in section of this conduct.
Reference plane (z=0) qV S1 S2

b
h

The volume flow rate of the flow is given by: .𝑞𝑉 = 𝑆1 𝑉1 = 𝑆2 𝑉2

Let's apply Bernoulli's theorem between points 1 and 2 on the reference plane:
𝑃1 𝑉1 2 𝑃2 𝑉2 2 𝑆
+ + 𝑔𝑧1 = + + 𝑔𝑧2 Knowing that we replace,𝑉2 = 𝑆1 𝑉1
𝜌 2 𝜌 2 2

𝑃1 𝑉1 2 𝑃2 1 𝑆
+ + 𝑔𝑧1 = + 2 (𝑆1 𝑉1 )2 + 𝑔𝑧2
𝜌 2 𝜌 2

𝑃1 𝑉1 2 𝑆 2 𝑃
+ (1 − (𝑆1 ) ) + 𝑔𝑧1 =Is 𝜌2 + 𝑔𝑧2
𝜌 2 2

2 𝑃2 −𝑃1
𝑉1 2 = 𝑆 2
×( + 𝑔(𝑧2 − 𝑧1 )or z2 - z1 = 0, hence
1−( 1 ) 𝜌
𝑆2

2 𝑃2 − 𝑃1
𝑉1 2 = 2 ×
𝑆 𝜌
1 − (𝑆1 )
2

In application of Bernoulli's theorem between a and b (knowing that and:𝑃1 = 𝑃𝑎 𝑃2 = 𝑃𝑏 )

𝑃𝑎 𝑃𝑏
+ 𝑔𝑧𝑎 = + 𝑔𝑧𝑏 ⟹ 𝑃2 − 𝑃1 = 𝜌𝑔(𝑧1 − 𝑧2 ) = −𝜌𝑔ℎ
𝜌 𝜌

From where

𝟐
𝒒𝑽 = 𝑺𝟏 × 𝒈𝒉
√ 𝑺𝟏 𝟐
(𝑺 ) − 𝟏
𝟐

By analogy to , we deduce𝑞𝑉 = 𝐾√ℎ

 𝟐
𝑲 = 𝑺𝟏 ×𝒈
√ 𝑺𝟏 𝟐
(𝑺 ) − 𝟏
𝟐

A. Establishment of the physical equation

Let a fluid of density ρ flow through a pipe with a constriction as shown in the figure below.
Let us determine the flow according to the variation of pressure.

figure-1: diagram of the principle

Bernoulli's equation in the Venturi tube between points 1 and 2 is:

ρu21 ρu22
P1 + ρgZ1 + = P2 + ρgZ2 + eq. 1
2 2

With :

 P1 and P2 the respective pressures of the fluid at the inlet and at the level of the fluid
restriction.
 u1 and u2 the respective velocities of the fluid at the inlet and at the level of the fluid
constriction
 z1 and z2 the altitudes of the fluid element
 g: acceleration due to gravity

As , the equation eq.1 becomes:𝑍1 = 𝑍2

𝜌𝑢12 𝜌𝑢22
𝑃1 + = 𝑃2 +
2 2
𝜌𝑢22 𝜌𝑢12 𝛒
⟹ 𝑃1 − 𝑃2 = − let eq.2𝐏𝟏 − 𝐏𝟐 = 𝟐 (𝐮𝟐 𝟐 − 𝐮𝟏 𝟐 )
2 2

According to the law of conservation of matter, we have:

𝜋 𝜋 𝐃𝟐
𝑄 = 4 𝐷2 𝑢1 = 4 𝑑2 𝑢2 , hence eq.3𝐮𝟐 = 𝐮𝟏
𝐝𝟐

Eq.3 in eq.2 gives:

 𝜌 𝐷4 2
𝑃1 − 𝑃2 = ( 𝑢 − 𝑢1 2 )
2 𝑑4 1
𝜌 𝐷4
𝑃1 − 𝑃2 = 2 (𝑑4 − 1)𝑢1 2gold posing𝑢1 = 𝑢

We obtain :
𝜌 𝐷4
𝑃1 − 𝑃2 = ( − 1)𝑢2
2 𝑑4
Is

𝑃1 − 𝑃2
𝑢=√
𝜌 𝐷4
( − 1)
2 𝑑4

Is

𝜋 2 𝑃1 − 𝑃2
𝑄= 𝐷
4 √𝜌 𝐷 4
2 ( 𝑑 4 − 1)

Equivalent

𝐐 = 𝐤√∆𝐏
With

𝛑 𝟐 𝟏
𝐤= 𝐃 𝐞𝐭 ∆𝐏 = 𝐏𝟏 − 𝐏𝟐
𝟒 √𝛒 𝐃 𝟒
𝟐 ( 𝐝𝟒 − 𝟏)

It can be seen that k depends on the geometric parameters of the pipe and the intrinsic
parameters of the fluid

B. Measuring principle:
The principle of the Venturi tube is based on measuring the pressure difference between the
inlet and the constricted area of the tube, which is proportional to the square. The
proportionality coefficient depending on the geometry and the characteristics of the fluid is
known. Thus we can deduce the flow rate of the fluid according to the equation:

𝐐 = 𝐤√∆𝐏
 figure- -2: example of venturi tube

III. TEMPERATURE BY OPTICAL PYROMETRY

A. Establishment of the physical equation
Temperature measurement by Stefan-Boltzmann law flow optical pyrometry. Stefan's or
Stefan-Boltzmann's law (named after physicists Jožef Stefan and Ludwig Boltzmann) defines
the relationship between thermal radiation and the temperature of an object considered a
blackbody. It establishes that the energetic exitance [a] of a body in watts per square meter
(total power radiated per unit area in the half-free space of a black body) is related to its
temperature expressed in kelvins by the relation :

𝑀 = 𝜖𝜎𝑇 4
With,
Mthe power emitted per unit area
𝛔 ≈ 𝟓, 𝟔𝟕𝟎 𝟑𝟕𝟒 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟖 𝐖. 𝐦−𝟐 . 𝐊 −𝟒 is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant, also called Stefan's
constant
ϵthe emissivity which is a coefficient without unit, included between 0 and 1, and which is the
unit for a black body.
Conversely, this law allows a calculation of the temperature from the energy flux per unit
area:

𝐌 𝟎,𝟐𝟓
𝐓=( )
𝛔𝛜
We start from the expression of the spectral density emitted by a black body (Planck's Law).
We work in terms of pulsation ω. If u is the internal energy per unit volume (), the spectral
𝜕𝑈
density is the energy of pulsating photons between ω and ω + dω:𝑢 = 𝜕𝑉

𝜕𝑢 ħ 𝜔3
𝑢𝜔 = =
𝜕𝜔 𝑐 3 𝜋 2 𝑒𝑥𝑝 ( ħ𝜔 ) − 1
𝑘𝐵 𝑇
The notation ħ ("h bar") designates the reduced Planck constant.
 We now seek to express the total surface power (for all the pulsations) emitted by a black
𝐝𝛗𝐞
body. We show that if is the power emitted by a unit area of a black body, we have𝛗𝐞 =
𝐝𝛚
𝐜
uw . The total power being obtained by summing all these powers for each pulsation, we seek
𝟒

to calculate
∞ ħ 𝜔3 ħ𝜔
∫𝟎 dωPerforming the change of variable, we get𝑥 = 𝑘
𝑐 3 𝜋2 𝑒𝑥𝑝(
ħ𝜔
)−1 𝐵𝑇
𝑘𝐵 𝑇

(𝐤 𝐁 𝐓)𝟒 ∞ 𝐱 𝟑
𝐏𝐒𝐮𝐫𝐟𝐚𝐜𝐢𝐪𝐮𝐞 = ∫ 𝐝𝐱 = 𝛔𝐓 𝟒
𝟒𝛑𝟐 𝐜 𝟐 ħ𝟑 𝟎 𝐞𝐱 − 𝟏
With
k 4b π4 π2 k 4B
σ= = ≈ 5,670 374 × 10−8 W. m−2 . K −4
4π2 c 2 ħ3 15 60c 2 ħ3
For any surface, we have:
𝐏𝐒𝐮𝐫𝐟𝐚𝐜𝐢𝐪𝐮𝐞 = 𝛜𝛔𝐓 𝟒

B. Measuring principle
The "fiber optic probe pyroreflectometer" is a device capable of simultaneously measuring
the light emitted as well as reflected by the material. By working on two or three wavelengths
at the same time, the calculations make it possible to deduce the surface temperature of any
opaque body.

figure-1:A pyroreflectometer produced by INNOVAXIOM

IV. TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT BY ELECTRONIC AMPLIFICATION

Temperature sensors are components whose output characteristic varies proportionally to the
temperature. This output characteristic can be a variation of voltage, current, resistance.

Displays voltage.
Transducer amplifiers UT = k
k= 0.1V.°C-1.

1. Principle

A diode is a semiconductor element which has the property of conducting current only in
one direction. The voltage-current relation is therefore strongly non-linear and is given by

equation (1)

where Io is the reverse current of the diode and is generally very low from a few p A
(pico=10-12) to a few n A (nano=10-9). This current also depends on the following
temperature (2)

Eg is the energy width of the forbidden band (1.18 eV for silicon at 0 kelvin), T the
temperature expressed in kelvin, kB = 1.38 10-23 J K-1 the Boltzmann constant and e =
1.602 10-19 As the elementary charge.
Around room temperature (150 K to 300 K), we can consider A as independent of
temperature, and equation (1) becomes taking into account (2) and the fact that eV >>kB T
: ( 3)

On a graph V as a function of T, we have a straight line with a negative slope (-2 to -3

mV/K) and whose voltage at T=0 gives the gap (Eg/e).

2. Effect of temperature
For positive Vd, the diode has a negative temperature coefficient equal to -2mV/K. This
temperature drift is stable enough for diodes to be used as thermometers. For negative Vd,
the leakage current If varies very rapidly with temperature. It is more important for
germanium than for silicon, and grows faster, which quickly becomes troublesome. In
silicon, this current doubles every 6°C.

Differential (or dynamic) resistance.

Figure 7: Dynamic resistance.

Since the dynamic resistance is the inverse of the slope of the characteristic at a given
point, it can be deduced by derivation from formula [1]:

It is the dynamic resistance at the operating point (Vd, Id). It is a function of the polarization
current Id at the point studied.

2.1 Table of values:

 2.2 Curve U = f (
- Enter the numerical values U and in a spreadsheet and draw the curve U = f ( )
-The tension varies with the temperature following an affine function U = a T+ b.
-Determine the value of the coefficients a and b.

3.Assembly Conditioner
The assembly consists of a subtractor stage (AO1) followed by an inverting
amplifier stage with adjustable gain (AO2) in order to obtain a response

Subtractor mounting: US1= U - U Ref

𝑅 𝑅
𝑀𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒𝑢𝑟 ∶ 𝑈𝑇 = − 𝑈𝑆1 = − (𝑈 − 𝑈 Réf)
𝑅1 𝑅1
UT = k ϴ with k = 0.1 V. °C-1.

V. DENSITY OF A GAS
The density of gases is calculated from the density of air [7]. The reference value taken is the
mass of one liter of air at 0°C under a pressure of 760 mmHg, or 1.29349 g.
We thus have:
𝜌𝑔𝑎𝑧
𝑑𝑔𝑎𝑧 =
𝜌𝑎𝑖𝑟
There is a convenient way to relate the molar mass M of a gas to its density. Indeed,
considering an ideal gas,PV = nRTfrom where :
nRT mRT m
V= = avec n =
P MP M
So we have :
m RT RT
M= ou M = ρ
V P P
and :
𝜌𝑔𝑎𝑧 𝑀𝑔𝑎𝑧
𝑑𝑔𝑎𝑧 = =
𝜌𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑀𝑎𝑖𝑟

By taking into account the composition of the air and the respective molar masses (78% of
nitrogen, 21% of oxygen and 1% of argon approximately), it is easy to show that:
𝑀𝑎𝑖𝑟 = 29 𝑔𝑚𝑜𝑙 −1 , or for gases
𝑴𝒈𝒂𝒛
𝒅𝒈𝒂𝒛 =
𝟐𝟗
Thus for the measurement of the density is obtained after obtaining the molar mass of the
latter.

VI. HEAT FLUX (GRADIENT FLUX METER)

A. Establishment of the physical equation
The gradient fluxmeter is an application of the Fourier's law equation in steady-state
unidirectional conductive transfer where there is no energy generation or energy storage.
Drawing :
Consider a wall of thickness e, of thermal conductivityλ, and large transverse dimensions
whose extreme faces are at temperatures T1 and T2:
 figure-1: diagram of a simple wall crossed by a flux density
By performing a heat balance on the system (S) consisting of the slice of wall between the
abscissa x and x + dx, it comes:
dT dT
ϕx = ϕx+dx ⇒ −λS ( ) = −λS ( )
dx x dx x+dx
dy
d′ où = A et T(x) = Ax + B
dx
With the boundary conditions:T(x = 0) = T1 et T(x = e) = T2
x
d′ où ∶ T(x) = T1 − (T1 − T2 )
e
Thus we can deduce the heat flow crossing the wall is deduced by the relation:
dT
ϕ = −λS dx from where :

𝛌𝐒 (𝐓𝟏 − 𝐓𝟐 )
𝛟=
𝐞
B. Measuring principle
The method consists in measuring a temperature gradient generated by the diffusion of a
thermal flux by means of a fluxmeter in direct contact with this wall: the flux in the sensor can
be normal to its surface or tangential. In these devices, the measurement of temperature
differences is generally ensured by a thermopile or by resistance probes.
 figure2: Normal and tangential gradient fluxmeter
The measurement of the temperature gradient between the two faces of a fluxmeter with
normal gradient of thickness e and thermal conductivity λ makes it possible to go back to the
thermal flux density for a unidirectional flux, either by application of Fourier's law in regime
permanent, or by direct calibration in thermal flux.

VII. MANUAL CONDENSATION HYDROMETRY

A. Equation of the physical phenomenon
The relative humidity or hygrometric degree commonly notedϕis the measure of the ratio
between the water vapor content of the air and its maximum capacity to contain it under these
conditions. It is obtained by:

𝐏𝐯𝐚𝐩
𝛗= × 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝐏𝐬𝐚𝐭
Pvap is the water vapor pressure. Give from the ambient temperature Ta of the air

7,5 × Ta
Pvap = 6,11 × 10 ( )
237,3 + Ta
Psat is the saturation vapor pressure. Give from the dew temperature Tr of the air:

7,5 × Tr
Psat = 6,11 × 10 ( )
237,3 + Tr

B. Measuring principle
This device is based on the measurement of the dew point temperature, and is used to
measure the humidity in the air, or another gaseous mixture.
 The gas is injected at a controlled rate.
 This fluid then comes into contact with a mirror placed in the device.
 A light beam is reflected on the mirror, and sent to an optical receiver.
 Subsequently, the mirror is gradually cooled until condensation forms on the latter,
which has the effect of attenuating the power of the light beam.
  An operator visually checks the appearance of fogging on the mirror, and notes the
ambient (dry temperature) and mirror (wet temperature) temperatures. From these two
measurements, it determines the relative humidity.

figure-1: diag7ram of the measuring principle

VIII. PRESSURE BY VARIATION OF CAPACITIVE ELEMENT

The pressure sensor by variation of capacitive element is a device intended to convert
variations in pressure into variations in electrical voltage.

A. Physical principle used in the sensor: The Capacitor

We can characterize each capacitor by the amount of electricity it can hold. This quantity of
electricity Q (unit: the coulomb) depends on the voltage U and the electrical capacity (symbol
C) of the body:
𝑄
Q = CU ⇒ 𝑈 =
𝐶
The capacitance of a flat capacitor is given by the formula:
𝑆
𝐶 = 𝜀𝑟 . 𝜀0 .
𝑑
C: Capacity in F
ε: Absolute dielectric constant in F/m
S: Surface of the electrodes in m²
d: Distance between the electrodes in m
The measuring devices are made in such a way that: d depends on the pressure, i.e.:
Q. d(P) 𝜺𝒓 𝜺𝟎 𝑺
U(P) = ⇒ 𝐝(𝐩) = 𝐊. 𝐔 𝐚𝐯𝐞𝐜 𝐊 =
εr εr S 𝑸
B. Measuring principle
Depending on the value of the pressure, the distance between the two armatures changes.
We can therefore determine this pressure value according to this spacing
 figure-1: Cutaway of the Ceracore sensor

IX. DENSITY BY HYDROMETER METHOD

A. Physical equation
The hydrometer is based on Archimedes' principle. By applying that this is equal (in absolute
value) to the weight of the volume of liquid displaced (equal to the submerged volume Vi), we
can write:
𝜌𝐿 𝑉𝑖 𝑔 = 𝜌𝑠 𝑉𝑔
Where are respectively the mass volume and the volume of the submerged body and g the
acceleration of gravity.𝜌𝑠 𝑒𝑡 𝑉
So we get as follows:
𝛒𝐬 𝐕𝐢
𝐝= =
𝛒𝐋 𝐕
B. Measuring principle
A hydrometer consists of a hollow cylinder, weighted and graduated, which sinks more or
less into the liquid to be measured according to its density.
The density of the liquid in which it is immersed is read directly on the scale present on the
free surface.

figure-1: hydrometer in use