Module 1

Mechanical Waves
How can we transmit energy without transferring matter?

The slinky can exhibit wave patterns in motion. Usually sold as a toy, it
is also being used in the classrooms to demonstrate wave motion.

Introduction

Waves are significant phenomena in the universe and the study of waves has a wide range applications. We
begin this course on the properties of mechanical waves. A mechanical wave is a disturbance that travels through a
material or substance called the medium of the wave. As the wave travels, the particles that make up the medium
undergo displacements of various kinds depending on the nature of the wave.

Objectives

Upon finishing this module, you should be able to:

1. use the wave function to describe the properties of a wave.
2. calculate the speed of a wave on a string and other media.
3. calculate the energy of mechanical waves.

PROPERTIES OF MECHANICAL WAVES

Kinds of mechanical wave:

1. Transverse wave is the type of wave where the particles of the medium vibrate perpendicularly to the
direction of propagation of the wave disturbance. (ex. Wave in a string)
2. Longitudinal wave is the type of wave where the particles of the medium vibrate parallel to the direction
of propagation of the wave disturbance. (ex. Sound)

Wavelength, 𝜆, is the distance between two successive points on the wave that are in phase. The wave pattern
travels with constant speed, 𝑣, and advances a distance of one wavelength in a time interval of one period, 𝑇. So the
speed of propagation of the wave is given by 𝑣 = 𝜆/𝑇.
Since 𝑓 = 1/𝑇 where 𝑓 is the frequency of the vibration, the wave speed can be also written as 𝑣 = 𝜆𝑓.

WAVE FUNCTION FOR A SINUSOIDAL WAVE

A periodic wave is a wave that undergoes periodic motion as the wave propagates. Periodic waves with simple
harmonic motion are called sinusoidal waves. When a sinusoidal wave passes through a medium, every particle in the
medium undergoes simple harmonic motion with the same frequency. If one end of the medium is vibrating
periodically, the displacement of the particle of the medium will vary with time in accordance with simple harmonic
relation 𝑦 = 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 or 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡, where 𝐴 is the amplitude of vibration, 𝑡 is the time and 𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓 is the angular
frequency.
 Suppose that the displacement of a particle at the left end (𝑥 = 0) of the vibrating string is zero, the wave
function for this particle is
𝑦(𝑥 = 0, 𝑡) = 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 = 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜋𝑓𝑡 (1 − 1)

That is, the particle oscillates in simple harmonic motion, the particle at 𝑥 = 0 has a zero displacement (𝑦 =
0) and is moving in the positive x-direction. The wave disturbance travels from 𝑥 = 0 to some point 𝑥 to the right of the
origin in the amount of time given by 𝑥/𝑣. Hence the wave function for the particle at 𝑥 is

𝑥 𝑥
𝑦(𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔 (𝑡 − ) = 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜋𝑓 (𝑡 − ) (1 − 2)
𝑣 𝑣

In terms of the period 𝑇 = 1/𝑓 and the wavelength 𝜆 = 𝑣/𝑓, the wave function can be written as

𝑡 𝑥
𝑦(𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜋 ( − ) (1 − 3)
𝑇 𝜆

We define wave number 𝑘 = 2𝜋/𝜆. Substituting 𝜆 = 2𝜋/𝑘 and 𝑓 = 𝜔/2𝜋 in the relation 𝑣 = 𝜆𝑓 gives 𝜔 =
𝑣𝑘. Then the wave function can be written as

𝑦(𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥) (1 − 4)

Figure 1.1
(left) A simulation shows how a wave looks as it travels in a string. This is also a perfect representation of y(x,t) where
t=0, in this case, demonstrating the shape of the wave at a given time.
(right) The graph of y(x,t) versus time t for a specific coordinate, in this case x=0, describes the motion of a particle at
that coordinate as a function of time.

For the wave traveling in the –x-direction (or to the left), the displacement of point 𝑥 at time 𝑡 is the same as
the motion of the point at 𝑥 = 0 at the later time ((𝑡 + 𝑥/𝑣) so we can replace 𝑡 by (𝑡 + 𝑥/𝑣) . Then the wave function
for the wave traveling in the negative x-direction is given by

𝑥 𝑡 𝑥
𝑦(𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜋𝑓 (𝑡 + ) = 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜋 ( + ) = 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡 + 𝑘𝑥) (1 − 5)
𝑣 𝑇 𝜆

THE WAVE EQUATION

Given the wave function, we can obtain the expression of the transverse velocity of any particle in a transverse
wave by taking the partial derivative of the function with respect to 𝑡, keeping 𝑥 constant.

For a wave function 𝑦(𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥), the transverse velocity is given by

𝜕𝑦(𝑥, 𝑡)
𝑣𝑦 (𝑥, 𝑡) = = 𝜔𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥) (1 − 6)
𝜕𝑡

For the transverse acceleration, take its second partial derivative to obtain
 𝜕 2 𝑦(𝑥, 𝑡)
𝑎𝑦 (𝑥, 𝑡) = = −𝜔2 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥) = −𝜔2 𝑦(𝑥, 𝑡). (1 − 7)
𝜕𝑡 2

To derive the wave equation, take the first and the second derivative of the wave function with respect to 𝑥;
that is holding 𝑡 constant.

𝜕𝑦(𝑥, 𝑡) 𝜕 2 𝑦(𝑥, 𝑡)
= −𝑘𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥) and = −𝑘 2 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥) (1 − 8)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 2

From equations (1-7) and (1-8) and the relation 𝜔 = 𝑣𝑘, we can see that

𝜕 2 𝑦(𝑥, 𝑡) 1 𝜕 2 𝑦(𝑥, 𝑡)
= (1 − 9)
𝜕𝑥 2 𝑣 2 𝜕𝑡 2

which is the wave equation.

The wave equation is a linear second-order partial differential equation

which describes the propagation of oscillations at a fixed speed in some
quantity 𝑦(𝑥, 𝑡). The equation is a good description for a wide range of
phenomena because it is typically used to model small oscillations about
an equilibrium, for which systems can often be well approximated
by Hooke's law. Solutions to the wave equation are important in fluid
dynamics and also play an important role in electromagnetism,
optics, gravitational physics, and heat transfer.
Figure 1.2 The wave equation is used to model high
quality and realistic computer generated animation
of waves which can be seen in high end video
games, computer animations, and simulators.

SPEED OF WAVES

Speed of a transverse wave in a vibrating string

𝐹
𝑣=√ (1 − 10)
𝜇
where 𝐹 is the tension in the string and 𝜇 is the mass per unit length (𝜇 = 𝑚/𝐿). 𝑚 is the mass of the string and 𝐿 is its
length.

Speed of a longitudinal wave in a solid bar

𝑌
𝑣=√ (1 − 11)
𝜌
where 𝑌 is Young’s modulus and 𝜌 is the density of the solid.

Speed of a longitudinal wave in a vibrating fluid

𝐵𝑎𝑑
𝑣=√ (1 − 12)
𝜌
where 𝐵𝑎𝑑 is the adiabatic bulk modulus and 𝜌 is the density of the fluid.

Sound waves in gases

For an ideal gas, 𝐵𝑎𝑑 = 𝛾𝑝 where𝛾 = 𝐶𝑝 /𝐶𝑣 is the dimensionless ratio of molar heat capacities and 𝑝 is the
absolute pressure. At sea level the absolute pressure at standard temperature and pressure is 1.013 x 105Pa. The speed
of sound in an ideal gas is given by
𝐵𝑎𝑑 𝛾𝑝 𝛾𝑅𝑇
𝑣=√ =√ =√ (1 − 13)
𝜌 𝜌 𝑀
where = 𝑝𝑀/𝑅𝑇 , 𝑅 = 8.3145 𝐽/𝑚𝑜𝑙. 𝐾 is the universal gas constant, 𝑀 = 28.8𝑔/𝑚𝑜𝑙 the molecular mass, 𝑇 the
absolute temperature, and 𝛾 = 1.40.
ENERGY IN WAVE MOTION

Every wave motion has energy associated with it. As an example of energy considerations in wave motion, let’s
consider the transverse waves on a string. From the property of a mechanical wave, energy is transported along the
length of the vibrating string and this instantaneous rate at which energy is transferred is referred to as power and its
value is dependent on both position 𝑥 and time 𝑡 by
𝑃(𝑥, 𝑡) = √𝜇𝐹𝜔2 𝐴2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 (𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥) (1 − 14)
𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 (𝑥, 𝑡) = √𝜇𝐹𝜔2𝐴2 (1 − 15)
1
𝑃𝑎𝑣 (𝑥, 𝑡) = √𝜇𝐹𝜔2𝐴2 (1 − 16)
2
1
For an oscillating spring, the total energy of a mass oscillating on a spring is 2 𝑘𝐴2 , where 𝑘 = 𝑚𝜔2 is the force
constant and 𝐴 is the amplitude. Applying this to a segment of the string of mass ∆𝑚 = 𝜇∆𝑥 oscillating perpendicular
to the string with amplitude 𝐴, we have

1 1
∆𝐸 = (∆𝑚)𝜔2 𝐴2 = 𝜇𝜔2 𝐴2 ∆𝑥 (1 − 17)
2 2

After a time ∆𝑡, the wave travels a distance ∆𝑥 = 𝑣∆𝑡. The energy transmitted past ∆𝑚 during this time is thus

1 1
∆𝐸 = 𝜇𝜔2 𝐴2 ∆𝑥 = 𝜇𝜔2 𝐴2 𝑣∆𝑡 (1 − 18)
2 2

Thus the rate at which energy is transmitted is also

𝑑𝐸 1 2 2
𝑃= = 𝜇𝜔 𝐴 𝑣 (1 − 19)
𝑑𝑡 2

Let’s check your understanding. Let’s do a practice quiz!

1. A traverse wave is moving to the right. What is Up and down, perpendicular to the direction of travel of
the motion of the particles of the medium? wave.
2. A water wave eventually slows down to zero It is dissipated – usually as heat.
speed. What happens to its energy?
3. Can mechanical waves propagate everywhere? No. They require an elastic medium to propagate.
4. What type of motion is demonstrated by Simple harmonic motion
mechanical waves in this module?
5. What is the frequency of a wave whose 𝑣 400𝑚/𝑠
𝑓= = = 200 𝐻𝑧
wavelength is 2.0m and travelling at 400m/s? 𝜆 2.0𝑚
6. What is the period of the wave in number 5? 1 1
𝑇= = = 5.0 𝑥 10−3 𝑠
𝑓 200 𝐻𝑧
7. What is the wave number of the wave in umber 2𝜋 2𝜋 𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝑟𝑎𝑑
𝑘= = =𝜋 𝑜𝑟 3.1416
5? 𝜆 2.0 𝑚 𝑚 𝑚
8. What is the angular frequency of the wave in 𝑟𝑎𝑑
𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓 = (2𝜋𝑟𝑎𝑑)(200 𝐻𝑧) = 400𝜋
number 5? 𝑠
3
𝑟𝑎𝑑
= 1.26 𝑥 10
𝑠
9. A 1.0m-long string has a mass of 0.05kg. What is 𝑚 0.05 𝑘𝑔
𝜇= = = 0.05 𝑘𝑔/𝑚
its mass per unit length? 𝐿 1.0 𝑚
10. What is the tension in the string in number 9 if 𝑘𝑔 𝑚 2
𝑇 = 𝐹 = 𝜇𝑣 2 = (0.05 ) (20.0 ) = 20.0 𝑁
the speed of a transverse pulse in the string is 𝑚 𝑠
20.0m/s?
11. What is the speed of a longitudinal wave in
𝛾𝑅𝑇 (1.40)(8.314 𝐽/𝑚𝑜𝑙. 𝐾)(300 𝐾)
oxygen at 300K? The molar mass of oxygen is 𝑣=√ =√
32.0g/mol. 𝑀 0.032 𝑘𝑔/𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝑚
= 330.34
𝑠

Let’s your understanding with these exercises by yourself or in a group study.

1. Ocean waves with a crest-to-crest distance of 10.0 m can be described by the wave function
𝑦(𝑥, 𝑡) = (0.800𝑚)sin[0.628(𝑥 − 𝑣𝑡)]
where v = 1.20 m/s.

(a) Sketch y(x, t) at t = 0.

(b) Sketch y(x, t) at t = 2.00 s. Compare this graph with that for part (a) and explain similarities and
differences. What has the wave done between picture (a) and picture (b)?

2. For a certain transverse wave, the distance between two successive crests is 1.20 m, and eight crests pass a
given point along the direction of travel every 12.0 s. Calculate the wave speed.

3. A transverse wave on a string is described by the wave function

𝜋
𝑦 = (0.120𝑚)sin ( 𝑥 + 4𝜋𝑡 )
8
(a) Determine the transverse speed and acceleration of the string at t = 0.200 s for the point on the
string located at x = 1.60 m
(b) What are the wavelength, period, and speed of propagation of this wave?

4. A telephone cord is 4.00 m long. The cord has a mass of 0.200 kg. A transverse pulse is produced by plucking
one end of the taut cord. The pulse makes four trips down and back along the cord in 0.800 s. What is the
tension in the cord?

5. A piano string having a mass per unit length equal to 5.00 x 10-3 kg/m is under a tension of 1350 N. Find the
speed with which a wave travels on this string.

6. A taut rope has a mass of 0.180 kg and a length of 3.60 m. What power must be supplied to the rope so as to
generate sinusoidal waves having an amplitude of 0.100 m and a wavelength of 0.500 m and traveling with a
speed of 30.0 m/s?

7. Motion picture film is projected at 24.0 frames per second. Each frame is a photograph 19.0 mm high. At what
constant speed does the film pass into the projector?

8. What is the difference between the speed of longitudinal waves in air at 27.0°C and their speed at 37.0°C?
 Did you get the right answers?

1.

The graph (b) has the same amplitude and wavelength as graph (a). it differs just by being shifted toward
larger x by 2.40 m. The wave has traveled 2.40 m to the right.
𝑚
1. 𝑣 = 0.800
𝑠
m
2. (a) 𝑣 = −1.51 s ; 𝑎=0
𝑚
(b) 𝜆 = 16.0𝑚; 𝑇 = 0.500 𝑠; 𝑣 = 32.0 𝑠
3. F = 80.0N
𝐹 𝑚
4. 𝑣 = √𝜇 = 520
𝑠
5. 𝑃 = 1.07 𝑘𝑊
𝑚
6. 𝑣 = (𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ)(𝑟𝑒𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒) = 0.456
𝑠
𝑚
7. Δ𝑣 = 5.70 𝑠
 Interested to read more or watch videos? Visit these:

http://bit.do/WaveMechanics

http://physics.mq.edu.au/~jcresser/Phys201/WaveMechanicsLectureSlides.pdf

https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/chemistry/wave-mechanics

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_Y28V2NamJg

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AUBAMlMoI1g

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qV4lR9EWGlY

Reference

Young, H. D., Freedman, R. A., & Ford, L. A. (2011). Sears and Zemansky’s University Physics with

Modern Physics, 13th Edition (13th ed.). Addison-Wesley.