TENSOR ANALYSIS

Introduction

Scalars are specified by magnitude only and vectors have magnitude as well as
direction. Tensors are a natural and logical generalization of vectors. There are
associated with magnitude and two or more directions.

A tensor can be specified only by its components which depend upon the system of
reference. The components of the same tensor will be different for two different
sets of axes with different orientations.

Need for Tensors

Consider the relation connecting electrical current density J in a medium and the
applied electric field 𝐸⃗ .The relation is 𝐽 = 𝜎𝐸⃗

Where ‘σ’ is the electrical conductivity.

It should be realized that this law is a special case and apply strictly only to
isotropic media or to a media possessing high symmetry. In reality, many media
are anisotropic and the current flows in a direction different from that of the
electric field .In such a situation the above equation can be written in a generalized
form as
𝐽𝑥 = 𝜎𝑥𝑥 𝐸𝑥 + 𝜎𝑥𝑦 𝐸𝑦 + 𝜎𝑥𝑧 𝐸𝑧

𝐽𝑦 = 𝜎𝑦𝑥 𝐸𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦𝑦 𝐸𝑦 + 𝜎𝑦𝑧 𝐸𝑧

𝐽𝑧 = 𝜎𝑧𝑥 𝐸𝑥 + 𝜎𝑧𝑦 𝐸𝑦 + 𝜎𝑧𝑧 𝐸𝑧

Where Jx, Jy, Jz and Ex, Ey, Ez are respectively, the Cartesian components of 𝐽 and
𝐸⃗ and σij (i, j= x, y, z) are said to components of the conductivity tensor of
the medium. The conductivity tensor has components. In the Cartesian co-ordinate
system xyz, J has three components, E has three components and σ has 9
components.
Physical law must be independent of any particular co-ordinate system. The above
equations which is written in the xyz co-ordinate system
𝐽𝑥 𝜎𝑥𝑥 𝜎𝑥𝑦 𝜎𝑥𝑧 𝐸𝑥
[𝐽𝑦 ] = [𝜎𝑦𝑥 𝜎𝑦𝑦 𝜎𝑦𝑧 ] [𝐸𝑦 ]
𝐽𝑧 𝜎𝑧𝑥 𝜎𝑧𝑦 𝜎𝑧𝑧 𝐸𝑧

Can be expressed in another co-ordinate system X’

𝐽′𝑥 𝜎′𝑥𝑥 𝜎′𝑥𝑦 𝜎′𝑥𝑧 𝐸′𝑥
[𝐽′𝑦 ] = [𝜎′𝑦𝑥 𝜎′𝑦𝑦 𝜎′𝑦𝑧 ] [𝐸′𝑦 ]
𝐽′𝑧 𝜎′𝑧𝑥 𝜎′𝑧𝑦 𝜎′𝑧𝑧 𝐸′𝑧

The elements of the new conductivity tensor are related to the elements of old
conductivity tensor in accordance with a certain mathematical rule. A study of the
consequences of the requirements of co-ordinate transformation leads is to tensor
analysis

The development of tensor analysis was due to Ricci(1889) and his pupil Levi-
civita (1901).The term tensor was introduced by Einstein (1916).It is of great use
in rigid body dynamics , elasticity ,hydrodynamics ,electromagnetic theory ,the
general theory of relativity and numerous other field of science and Engineering

Co-ordinate Transformations

Let XOY and X′OY′ be two co-ordinate systems in two dimensional spaces. Let
the co-ordinates of the point P be (x, y) in XOY and (𝑥̅ , 𝑦̅) in X′OY′
Then

𝑥̅ = 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑦 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝑦̅ = −𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 + 𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝑥̅ cos 𝜃 sin 𝜃 𝑥
[ ]=[ ][ ]
𝑦 − sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃 𝑦
If x and y are replaced by x′ and 𝑥̅ and 𝑦̅ are replaced by𝑥̅ 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥̅ 2

𝑥̅ 1 = cos 𝜃𝑥 1 + sin 𝜃𝑥 2
𝑥̅ 2 = (−sin 𝜃)𝑥 1 + cos 𝜃𝑥 2
𝑥̅ 1 = 𝑓(𝑥 1 , 𝑥 2 ) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥̅ 2 = 𝑔(𝑥 1 , 𝑥 2 )
𝑥̅ 1 = 𝑥̅ 1 (𝑥 1 , 𝑥 2 ) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥̅ 2 = 𝑥̅ 2 (𝑥 1 , 𝑥 2 )

We can generalize this result to N- dimensional spaces.

Let (x1 ,x2…xN) be a point in one system .Let the co-ordinates of the same point in
another system be (𝑥̅ 1 , 𝑥̅ 2 , … . 𝑥̅ 𝑁 )

Then 𝑥̅ 1 = 𝑥̅ 1 (𝑥 1 , 𝑥 2 … . 𝑥 𝑁 )
𝑥̅ 2 = 𝑥̅ 2 (𝑥 1 , 𝑥 2 … . 𝑥 𝑁 )
𝑥̅ 𝑁 = 𝑥̅ 𝑁 (𝑥 1 , 𝑥 2 … . 𝑥 𝑁 )

This set of equations can be indicates by a single equation

𝑥̅ 𝑖 = 𝑥̅ 𝑖 (𝑥 1 , 𝑥 2 … 𝑥 𝑁 ) ⟶ (1)

Where i=1, 2…N

It is obvious that a point can have only one set of co-ordinates in a particular
system i.e. there should be one to one correspondence between 𝑥̅ 𝑖 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥̅ 𝑖 .This
requirement is satisfied if the functions involved above are single valued
continuous and have continuous derivatives. Then conversely, to each set of co-
ordinates (𝑥̅ 1 , 𝑥̅ 2 … . 𝑥̅ 𝑁 ) there correspond a unique set

𝑥 𝑖 = 𝑥 𝑖 (𝑥̅ 1 , 𝑥̅ 2 … . . 𝑥̅ 𝑁 ) ⟶ (2)

Where i=1, 2…N

The relations 1 and 2 define a transformation of co-ordinates from one frame of
reference to another

Einstein summation convention

The sum of the following 𝑎1 𝑥 1 + 𝑎2 𝑥 2 + ⋯ . . +𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 can be written in brief

as∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑎𝑖 𝑥 𝑖 .

The simplified notation used by Einstein is aixi. Here we have omitted Σ sign. Here
we adopt the convention that whenever an index (superscript or subscript)is
repeated in a given term , we have to sum over that index from 1 to N , under
otherwise specified .This is called the summation convention.

Instead of using the index ‘i’, we could have used another letter, say ‘p’ and the
sum could be written as apxp. Any index that is repeated in a term to indicate the
summation is called a dummy index. An index occurring only once in a given term
is called a free index.

Qn) Express the Cartesian and spherical polar co-ordinates as functions of

each other.

Let x, y, z denote the Cartesian co-ordinates Υ, θ, ϕ the spherical polar co-

ordinates in a three dimensional space. The Cartesian co-ordinates are related to
the spherical polar co-ordinates by

x= r sin θ cos ϕ y = r sin θ sinϕ z = r cosθ

The inverse transformation is

(𝑥 2 +𝑦 2 )1/2
r = (x2+y2+z2)1/2 𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ϕ=tan-1 (y/x)
𝑧

𝑥 𝑖 = 𝑥 𝑖 (𝑥̅ 1 , 𝑥̅ 2 , … 𝑥̅ 𝑁 ), 1 ≤ 𝑖 ≤ 𝑁 ⟶ (1)

Differentiating
𝜕𝑥 𝑖
𝑑𝑥 𝑖 = ∑𝑁
𝛼=1 𝑑𝑥̅ 𝛼 1 ≤ 𝑖 ≤ 𝑁 ⟶ (2)
𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛼

𝑥̅ 𝛼 = 𝑥̅ 𝛼 (𝑥 1 , 𝑥 2 , … . 𝑥 𝑁 ), 1 ≤ 𝑖 ≤ 𝑁 ⟶ (3)
 𝜕𝑥 −𝛼
𝑑𝑥 −𝛼 = ∑𝑁
𝑖=1 𝑑𝑥 𝑖 1 ≤ 𝛼 ≤ 𝑁 ⟶ (4)
𝜕𝑥 𝑖

By Einstein summations convert

𝜕𝑥 𝑖
𝑑𝑥 𝑖 = 𝑑𝑥 −𝛼 1 ≤ 𝑖 ≤ 𝑁 ⟶ (5)
𝜕𝑥 −𝛼

𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛼
𝑑𝑥 −𝛼 = 𝑑𝑥 𝑖 1 ≤ 𝑖 ≤ 𝑁 ⟶ (6)
𝜕𝑥 𝑖

The index ‘i’ appear only once in eqn (2) and (5), hence ‘i’ is a free index .In eqns
(4) and (6),’α’ is a free index.

An index which is repeated over which the summation is implied is called a

dummy index. ’α’ is eqns (2) and (5), and ‘i’ in eqns (4) and (5) is a dummy index.

The co-ordinates xi is independent of each other .Hence

𝑑𝑥 𝑖 1 𝑖𝑓 𝑖 = 𝑗
={
𝑑𝑥 𝑗 0 𝑖𝑓 𝑖 ≠ 𝑗

Kronecker delta symbol is defined as

1 𝑖𝑓 𝑖=𝑗
𝛿𝑗 𝑖 = {
0 𝑖𝑓 𝑖≠𝑗
𝑑𝑥 𝑖
Therefore we can write = 𝛿 𝑖𝑗
𝑑𝑥 𝑗

𝑑𝑥̅ 𝛼
Similarly the co-ordinates 𝑥̅ 𝛼 are independent of each other .Hence = 𝛿ᵦ𝛼 .
𝑑𝑥̅ 𝛽

𝑑𝑥 𝑖 𝜕𝑥 𝑖 𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛼
=
𝑑𝑥 𝑗 𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛼 𝜕𝑥 𝑗

𝜕𝑥 𝑖 𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛼
Therefore we have . = 𝛿 𝑖𝑗
𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛼 𝜕𝑥 𝑗

𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛼 𝜕𝑥 𝑘
Similarly = 𝛿 𝛼𝛽
𝜕𝑥 𝑘 𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛽
Rank of a tensor

The rank of a tensor is the number of indices in the symbol represents a tensor. It is
the number of ways by which a physical quantity changes or it is the number of
components of physical quantity.

Tensors are specified in terms of their rank and components. Scalar or invariants
are tensors of rank zero. Vector (having N1 components in N-dimensional space)
are tensors of rank 1.Displacement, velocity, electric field , momentum, vector
potential or examples. Stress, conductivity, moment of inertia etc in anisotropic
media requires N2 components for its complete description in an N-dimensional
space and is examples of tensor of rank 2.

Effect of co-ordinate transformation on a vector

Consider an infinitesimally small displacement vector PQ is a two dimensional

space.

Let the co-ordinates of P be (x1,x2) and that of Q be (x1+δx1, x2+δx2).Let the co-
ordinates be changed from

(𝑥 1 , 𝑥 2 )𝑡𝑜(𝑥̅ 1 , 𝑥̅ 2 )

𝑥̅ 1 = 𝑥̅ 1 (𝑥 1 , 𝑥 2 )
𝜕𝑥̅ 1 𝜕𝑥̅ 1
𝛿𝑥̅ 1 = 1
𝛿𝑥 1 + 𝛿𝑥 2
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 2

In N dimension
𝜕𝑥̅ 1 𝜕𝑥̅ 1 𝜕𝑥̅ 𝑁
𝛿𝑥̅ 1 = 1
𝛿𝑥 1 + 2
𝛿𝑥 2 + ⋯ + 𝛿𝑥 𝑁
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝑁
 𝜕𝑥̅ 1
= ∑𝑁
𝑖=1 𝛿𝑥 𝑖
𝜕𝑥 𝑖

𝜕𝑥̅ 1
= 𝛿𝑥 𝑖
𝜕𝑥 1

In general
𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛼
𝛿𝑥̅ 𝛼 = 𝛿𝑥 𝑖
𝜕𝑥 𝑖

Replacing the displacement vector by a generalizing vector

𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛼
𝐴̅𝛼 = 𝑖 𝐴𝑖
𝜕𝑥

Contra variant vectors

If N quantities A1, A2…AN in a co-ordinate system (x1, x2…xN) are related to N

other quantities

𝐴1̅ , 𝐴̅2 , 𝐴̅3 … 𝐴̅𝑁 in another co-ordinate system (𝑥̅ 1 , 𝑥̅ 2 , … ) by the transformation
𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛼
equations 𝐴𝛼̅ = 𝑖 𝐴𝑖 ,they are the components of a contra variant vector or the
𝜕𝑥
contra variant tensor of first rank.

eg :velocity and acceleration are contra variant vectors

𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛼
We have 𝑑𝑥̅ 𝛼 = 𝑑𝑥 𝑖
𝜕𝑥 𝑖

If‘t’ denotes time

𝑑𝑥̅ 𝛼 𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛼 𝑑𝑥 𝑖
=
𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝑖 𝑑𝑡
𝛼 𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛼 𝑖
͞𝑣̅̅ = 𝑣̅ .This is the transformation law of contra variant vectors. Hence
𝜕𝑥 𝑖
velocity is contra variant vector of rank 1.
𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛼
Similarly 𝑎̅𝛼 = 𝑎𝑖 (tensor equation for acceleration components)
𝜕𝑥 𝑖
Co-variant tensor

Let ϕ be a scalar function,∇∅ is a vector having components along the different

axes. Let the components in co-ordinate system xi (x1, x2 ….xN) be

𝜕∅ 𝜕∅ 𝜕∅
, ,… ⟶ (1)
𝜕𝑥 1 𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑥 𝑁

Let the corresponding components in another co-ordinate system be

𝜕∅ 𝜕∅ 𝜕∅
, ,….. ⟶ (2)
𝜕𝑥̅ 1 𝜕𝑥̅ 2 𝜕𝑥̅ 𝑁

But 𝑥̅ 1 = 𝑥̅ 1 (𝑥 1 , 𝑥 2 … … 𝑥 𝑁 )
𝜕∅ 𝜕∅ 𝜕𝑥 1 𝜕∅ 𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕∅ 𝜕𝑥 𝑁
= . + . + ⋯+ .
𝜕𝑥̅ 1 𝜕𝑥 1 𝜕𝑥̅ 1 𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑥̅ 1 𝜕𝑥 𝑁 𝜕𝑥̅ 1

In general
𝜕∅ 𝜕∅ 𝜕𝑥 1 𝜕∅ 𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕∅ 𝜕𝑥 𝑁
= . + + ⋯+ .
𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛼 𝜕𝑥 1 𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛼 𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛼 𝜕𝑥 𝑁 𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛼

𝜕∅ 𝜕∅ 𝜕𝑥 𝑖
i.e. = .
𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛼 𝜕𝑥 1 𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛼

Replacing the components of gradient by a general vector A

𝜕𝑥 𝑖
𝐴̅𝛼 = 𝐴𝑖
𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛼

N quantities A1, A2…AN in one co-ordinate system are said to be the component of
covariant tensor of rank 1 if they transform to a new co-ordinate system
𝑥̅ 𝛼 (𝑥̅ 1 , 𝑥̅ 2 , … . 𝑥̅ 𝑁 ) according to the relation
𝜕𝑥 𝑖
𝐴̅𝛼 = 𝐴𝑖
𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛼

Here 𝐴̅𝛼 are the components in the new co-ordinate system.

Difference between contra variant and co-variant tensors

Contra variant tensor components are represented in the direction of co-ordinate

increase where as the component of covariant tensors are represented in the
direction orthogonal to the co-ordinate surface. The velocity and acceleration
vectors are directed along the direction of co-ordinate increase while the gradient
vector is represented in terms of components orthogonal to the co-ordinate surface.
In the case of Cartesian co-ordinates, the co-ordinate direction x̍ coincides with the
direction orthogonal to the constant x̍ s. Hence there is no difference between co-
variant and contra variant tensors.

Second order tensors

1.A set of N2 function Aij are said to be the components of a contra variant tensor
𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛼 𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛽
of rank 2,if they transform according to the relation 𝐴̅𝛼𝛽 = 𝑖 𝐴𝑖𝑗 ,under co-
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝑗
ordinate transformation ; where 𝐴̅𝛼𝛽 are the components of the tensor in barred
co-ordinate system

2. A set of N2 quantities Aij are said be the components of a co-variant tensor rank
two if they transforms according to the relation
𝜕𝑥 𝑖 𝜕𝑥 𝑗
𝐴̅𝛼𝛽 = 𝐴𝑖𝑗 under co-ordinate transformations where 𝐴̅𝛼𝛽 are the
𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛼 𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛽
components of the tensor in the barred co-ordinate system.

3.A set of N2 functions Aij are said to be the components of a tensor of contra
variant with rank one and co-variant rank one (simply a mixed tensor of rank 2 if
they transforms according to
𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛼 𝜕𝑥 𝑗
𝐴̅𝛼𝛽 = 𝑖 𝐴𝑖𝑗 under co-ordinate transformations
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛽

General definitions
𝑖 ,𝑖 ….𝑖
A set of Np+q functions𝐴𝑗1,𝑗2 ….𝑗𝑝 , are said to be the components of a mixed tensor of
1 2 𝑞

contra variant rank P and co-variant rank q (total rank p+q) if they transform under
co-ordinate transformations to
 𝛼 ,𝛼 ,…𝛼 𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛼1 𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛼2 𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛼𝑝 𝜕𝑥 𝑗1 𝜕𝑥 𝑗2 𝜕𝑥 𝑗𝑞 𝑖 ,𝑖 ,….𝑖
𝐴𝛽̅ 1,𝛽 2,….𝛽𝑝 = . …… . . 𝛽2 … … 𝐴𝑗1,𝑗2 ,….𝑗𝑝
1 2 𝑞 𝜕𝑥 𝑖1 𝜕𝑥 𝑖2 𝜕𝑥 𝑖𝑝 𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛽1 𝜕𝑥̅ 𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛽𝑞 1 2 𝑞

A scalar is a tensor of rank zero and this has N0=1 component. A vector is a tensor
of rank 1 and has N1=N components in N-dimensional space.

If ‘A’ is a scalar, then under co-ordinate transformation 𝐴̅ = 𝐴

i.e. scalar is invariant under co-ordinate transformation.ie they are independent of

the choice of the co-ordinate system

Representation of a tensor by a matrix

A first order tensor can be represented by a column matrix having N terms

𝐴1 𝐴1
2 𝐴
𝐴𝑖 = [ 𝐴 ] 𝑜𝑟𝐴𝑖 = [ 2 ]
⋮ ⋮
𝑁 𝐴𝑁
𝐴
A second order tensor can be represented by an N×N square matrix

𝐴11 𝐴12 … 𝐴1𝑁

21
𝐴𝑖𝑗 = [ 𝐴 𝐴22 … 𝐴2𝑁 ]
⋮ ⋮ ⋮
𝑁1 𝑁2 𝑁𝑁
𝐴 𝐴 … 𝐴
𝐴11 𝐴12 … 𝐴1𝑁
𝐴 𝐴22 … 𝐴2𝑁
𝐴𝑖𝑗 = [ 21 ]
⋮ ⋮ ⋮
𝐴𝑁1 𝐴𝑁2 … 𝐴𝑁𝑁

𝐴11 𝐴12 … 𝐴1𝑁

2
𝐴𝑗𝑖 = 𝐴1 𝐴22 … 𝐴2𝑁
⋮ ⋮ ⋮
[𝐴1𝑁 𝐴2 … 𝐴𝑁
𝑁
𝑁]
Kronecker delta
0 𝑖𝑓𝑖 ≠ 𝑗
It is defined as 𝛿𝑗𝑖 =
1 𝑖𝑓𝑖 = 𝑗

Properties
𝜕𝑥 𝑖
𝟏. = 𝛿𝑗𝑖
𝜕𝑥 𝑗

𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛼
= 𝛿𝛽𝛼
𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛽

𝟐. 𝛿𝑗𝑖 𝐴𝑖 = 𝐴𝑖

𝛿𝑗𝑖 𝐴𝑖 = 𝛿1𝑖 𝐴1 + 𝛿2𝑖 𝐴2 + ⋯ + 𝛿𝑖𝑖 𝐴𝑖 + ⋯ + 𝛿𝑁𝑖 𝐴𝑁

= 𝐴𝑖

3. 𝛿𝑖𝑖 = 𝑁

𝛿𝑖𝑖 = 𝛿11 + 𝛿22 + 𝛿33 + ⋯ + 𝛿𝑁𝑁

=N
𝑗
4. 𝛿𝑗𝑖 𝛿𝑘 = 𝛿𝑘𝑖
𝑗
𝛿𝑗𝑖 𝛿𝑘 = 𝛿1𝑖 𝛿𝑘1 + 𝛿2𝑖 𝛿𝑘2 + ⋯ +𝛿𝑖𝑖 𝛿𝑘𝑖 + ⋯ 𝛿𝑁𝑖 𝛿𝑘𝑁

= 𝛿𝑘𝑖
𝜕𝑥 𝑖 𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛼 𝜕𝑥 𝑖
5. 𝛼
. = = 𝛿𝑘𝑖
𝜕𝑥̅ 𝜕𝑥 𝑘 𝜕𝑥 𝑘

Proof:
𝜕𝑥 𝑖 𝜕𝑥 𝑖 𝜕𝑥̅ 1 𝜕𝑥 𝑖 𝜕𝑥̅ 2 𝜕𝑥 𝑖 𝜕𝑥̅ 𝑁
𝛿𝑘′ = = + + ⋯+
𝜕𝑥 𝑘 𝜕𝑥̅ 1 𝜕𝑥 𝑗 𝜕𝑥̅ 2 𝜕𝑥 𝑗 𝜕𝑥̅ 𝑁 𝜕𝑥 𝑗

𝜕𝑥 𝑖 𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛼
= .
𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛼 𝜕𝑥 𝑗
Qn) Show that Kronecker delta is a mixed tensor

Let 𝛿𝑗𝑖 and 𝛿𝛽̅ 𝛼 be the symbols in two co-ordinate systems

𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛼
𝛿𝛽̅ 𝛼 =
𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛽
=
𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛼 𝜕𝑥 𝑖
𝜕𝑥 𝑖 𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛽

𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛼 𝜕𝑥 𝑖 𝜕𝑥 𝑗
= .
𝜕𝑥 𝑖 𝜕𝑥 𝑗 𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛽
𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛼 𝜕𝑥 𝑗
= 𝛿𝑗𝑖
𝜕𝑥 𝑖 𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛽

i.e. 𝛿𝑗𝑖 transforms like a mixed tensor.

Algebra of tensors

1. Equality
𝑖 ,𝑖 ……𝑖 𝑖 ,𝑖 …𝑖
Two tensors 𝐴𝑗1,𝑗2 …..𝑗 𝑝 𝑎𝑛𝑑𝐴𝑗1,𝑗2 ….𝑗𝑞 are said to be equal if and only if they have the
1 2 𝑞 1 2 𝑞

same contra variant rank and the same co-variant rank and every component of one
is equal to the corresponding component of the other
𝑖 ,𝑖 ……..𝑖 𝑖 ,𝑖 ……𝑖
𝐴𝑗1,𝑗2 ……..𝑗𝑝 = 𝐵𝑗 1,𝑗 2…….𝑗𝑝
1 2 𝑞 1 2 𝑞

If two tensors have the same contra variant rank and same co-variant rank they are
said to be of the same type

2. Null tensor

If all the Nr components of a tensor of rank ‘r’ vanish, it is said to be a null tensor.

3. Addition and subtraction

Two tensors of same type and rank can be added or subtracted from one another.
The result will have the same type and rank.
 𝑖𝑗 𝑖𝑗 𝑖𝑗 𝑖𝑗
If 𝐴𝑘 and 𝐵𝑘 are two tensors, then their sum 𝐶𝑘 and difference 𝐷𝑘 are of the
same type and rank as that of A and B

Transformation relation for sum and difference

𝑖𝑗 𝑖𝑗
If 𝐴𝑘 and 𝐵𝑘 are tensors, transformation relation are
𝛼
𝜕𝑥̅ 𝜕𝑥̅ 𝜕𝑥 𝛽 𝑘
𝛼𝛽 𝑖𝑗
𝐴̅𝛾 = 𝑖 . 𝑗 . 𝛾 𝐴𝑘
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥̅

𝜕𝑥̅ 𝜕𝑥̅ 𝜕𝑥 𝛼 𝛽 𝑘
𝛼𝛽 𝑖𝑗
𝐵̅𝛾 = 𝑖 . 𝑗 . 𝛾 𝐵𝑘
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥̅

𝛼𝛽 𝛼𝛽 𝛼𝛽
𝐶𝛾̅ = 𝐴̅𝛾 + 𝐵̅𝛾

𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛼 𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛽 𝜕𝑥 𝑘 𝑖𝑗 𝑖𝑗
= . . (𝐴𝑘 + 𝐵𝑘 )
𝜕𝑥 𝑖 𝜕𝑥 𝑗 𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛾
𝛼𝛽 𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛼 𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛽 𝜕𝑥 𝑘 𝑖𝑗
𝐶𝛾̅ = . . 𝐶𝑘
𝜕𝑥 𝑖 𝜕𝑥 𝑗 𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛾

̅𝛾𝛼𝛽 = 𝐴𝛼𝛽
Difference 𝐷 ̅𝛾 − 𝐵̅𝛾𝛼𝛽 e

𝛼 𝛽 𝑘
̅𝛾𝛼𝛽 = 𝜕𝑥̅ 𝑖 . 𝜕𝑥̅ 𝑗 . 𝜕𝑥 𝛾 (𝐴𝑖𝑗
𝐷
𝑖𝑗
𝑘 − 𝐵𝑘 )
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥̅

𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛼 𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛽 𝜕𝑥 𝑘 𝑖𝑗
= . . 𝐷𝑘
𝜕𝑥 𝑖 𝜕𝑥 𝑗 𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛾
𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛼 𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛽 𝜕𝑥 𝑘
̅𝛾𝛼𝛽 =
𝐷 . .
𝑖𝑗
𝐷𝑘
𝜕𝑥 𝑖 𝜕𝑥 𝑗 𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛾

Symmetric and skew symmetric tensor

A tensor is said to be symmetric with respect to contra variant indices or co-variant

indices, if the components remain unaltered on interchange of their indices
𝑖𝑗𝑘 𝑗𝑖𝑘
i.e. if 𝐴𝑙𝑚 = 𝐴𝑙𝑚 , A is symmetric w.r.t contra variant indices
𝑖𝑗𝑘 𝑖𝑗𝑘
if 𝐴𝑙𝑚 = 𝐴𝑚𝑙 , A is symmetric w.r.t co-variant indices

A tensor is said to be skew symmetric (anti symmetric) w.r.t co-variant indices or

contra variant indices if the components change sign on interchange of indices.
𝑖𝑗𝑘 𝑖𝑗𝑘
if 𝐴𝑚𝑙 = −𝐴𝑙𝑚 , A is skew symmetric w.r.t co-variant indices.
Theorem -1

If tensor is symmetric or skew symmetric is one co-ordinate system it remains

symmetric or skew symmetric in any other co-ordinate system.i.e symmetry is an
intrinsic property of a tensor and is independent of the choice of co-ordinate
system is symmetry is an invariant property.
𝑖𝑗 𝑗𝑖 𝑖𝑗
(i)Let 𝐴𝑘 = 𝐴𝑘 be a symmetric tensor Transformation equation for 𝐴𝑘 is

𝜕𝑥̅ 𝜕𝑥̅ 𝜕𝑥 𝛼 𝛽 𝑘
𝛼𝛽 𝑖𝑗
𝐴̅𝛾 = 𝑖 . 𝑘 . 𝛾 𝐴𝑘
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥̅

𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛼 𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛽 𝜕𝑥 𝑘 𝑖𝑗
= . . 𝐴𝑘
𝜕𝑥 𝑖 𝜕𝑥 𝑗 𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛾

𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛽 𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛼 𝜕𝑥 𝑘 𝑖𝑗
= . . 𝐴𝑘
𝜕𝑥 𝑗 𝜕𝑥 𝑖 𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛾

𝛼𝛽 𝛽𝛼
i.e. 𝐴̅𝛾 = 𝐴̅𝛾

i.e. symmetry is conversed in co-variant transformation

𝑖𝑗
(2) Let 𝐴𝑘 be a skew symmetric tensor
𝑖𝑗 𝑗𝑖
𝐴𝑘 = −𝐴𝑘
𝑖𝑗
Transformation equation for 𝐴𝑘 is

𝜕𝑥̅ 𝜕𝑥̅ 𝜕𝑥 𝛼 𝛽 𝑘
𝛼𝛽 𝑖𝑗
𝐴̅𝛾 = 𝑖 . 𝑗 . 𝛾 𝐴𝑘
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥̅

𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛼 𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛽 𝜕𝑥 𝑘 𝑖𝑗
= . . (−𝐴𝑘 )
𝜕𝑥 𝑖 𝜕𝑥 𝑗 𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛾

𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛽 𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛼 𝜕𝑥 𝑘 𝑖𝑗
= . . 𝐴𝑘
𝜕𝑥 𝑗 𝜕𝑥 𝑖 𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛾

𝛽𝛼
= −𝐴̅𝛾

Thus skew symmetry is an invariant property.

Theorem-2

Any tensor can be represented as the sum of two tensor, one of which is symmetric
and the other is skew symmetric in a pair of contra variant and co-variant indices.
𝑖𝑗
Let 𝐴𝑘 be a tensor
𝑖𝑗 1 𝑖𝑗 𝑗𝑖 1 𝑖𝑗 𝑗𝑖
𝐴𝑘 = [𝐴𝑘 + 𝐴𝑘 ] + [𝐴𝑘 − 𝐴𝑘 ]
2 2

= B+C

On interchanging indices i and j , B remains unaltered. i.e B is a symmetric tensor.

The sign of C changes on interchanging i and j i.e. C is a skew symmetric
𝑖𝑗
tensor.ie 𝐴𝑘 can be represented as a sum of a symmetric and a skew symmetric
tensor…

Outer product (Kronecker product)

If each component of one tensor is multiplied by energy component of the other,

the resulting set of quantity is a tensor. Its rank is the sum of the ranks of the
original tensor. Specifically the contra variant rank of the outer product is the sum
of the contra variant ranks and the co-variant rank is the sum of the co-variant
ranks of the original tensor. The concept of outer product can be extended to more
than two tensors.

Illustration
𝑖𝑗 𝑙
Let 𝐴𝑘 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵𝑚 are two tensors. The transformation equations are

𝜕𝑥̅ 𝜕𝑥̅ 𝜕𝑥 𝛼 𝛽 𝑘
𝛼𝛽 𝑖𝑗
𝐴̅𝛾 = 𝑖 . 𝑗 . 𝛾 𝐴𝑘
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥̅

𝜕𝑥̅ 𝜕𝑥 𝜌 𝑚
𝜌
𝐵̅𝛿 = 𝑙 . 𝛿 𝐵𝑚
𝑙
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥̅

Multiplying respective components from 1

𝛼
𝜕𝑥̅ 𝜕𝑥̅ 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥̅ 𝜕𝑥 𝛽 𝑘 𝜌 𝑚
𝛼𝛽 𝜌 𝑖𝑗 𝑙
𝐴̅𝛾 . 𝐵̅𝛿 = 𝑖 . 𝑗 . 𝛾 . 𝑙 . 𝛿 𝐴𝑘 𝐵𝑚
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥̅ 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥̅

𝛼𝛽𝜌 −𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛼 𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛽 𝜕𝑥 𝑘 𝜕𝑥̅ 𝜌 𝜕𝑥 𝑚 𝑖𝑗𝑙

̅
𝐶𝛾𝛿 .= . . . . 𝐶𝑘𝑚
𝜕𝑥 𝑖 𝜕𝑥 𝑗 𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛾 𝜕𝑥 𝑙 𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛿
The product has N5 terms and each one is the product of one of the component of
with one component of B.

Qn) Find the outer product of the tensor 𝑨𝒊𝒋 , 𝑩𝒌 , 𝑪𝒎

Transformation equations are

𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛼 𝜕𝑥 𝑗
𝐴𝛽𝛼̅ = 𝑖 𝐴𝑗𝑖
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛽

𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛾
𝐵̅𝛾 = 𝑘 𝐵𝑘
𝜕𝑥

𝜕𝑥 𝑚
𝐶𝛿̅ = 𝐶𝑚
𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛿

Multiplying the respective components, we get

𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛼 𝜕𝑥 𝑗 𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛾 𝜕𝑥 𝑚
𝐴𝛽̅𝛼 . 𝐵̅𝛾 𝐶𝛿̅ = 𝑖 𝐴𝑖𝑗 𝐵𝑘 𝐶𝑚
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛽 𝜕𝑥 𝑘 𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛿

𝛼 𝛾 𝜕𝑥 𝑗 𝜕𝑥 𝑚
̅ 𝛼𝛾 = 𝜕𝑥̅ 𝑖 . 𝜕𝑥̅ 𝑘
𝐷 𝐷𝑗𝑚
𝑗𝑘
𝛽𝛿 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛽 𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛿

The product has N4 terms

Contraction of a tensor
𝑖𝑗𝑘
Consider a tensor 𝐴𝑙𝑚 of contra variant rank 3 and covariant rank 2 which has N5
compound .Let any one of the contra variant indices be equated to any one of co-
variant indices and summed over from 1 to N.
𝑖𝑗𝑘
Consider a set of the form 𝐴𝑙𝑚 . Here ‘i’ is a dummy index while j, k and m are
free indices. By convention we have
𝑖𝑗𝑘 1𝑗𝑘 2𝑗𝑘 3𝑗𝑘 𝑁𝑗𝑘
𝐴𝑖 = 𝐴1𝑚 + 𝐴2𝑚 + 𝐴3𝑚 + ⋯ + 𝐴𝑁𝑚
𝑖𝑗𝑘
The entity 𝐴𝑙𝑚 has N3 components i.e. it is a tensor of rank 3.
𝑖𝑗𝑘
Consider the transformation of the tensor 𝐴𝑙𝑚

𝜕𝑥̅ 𝜕𝑥̅ 𝜕𝑥̅𝛼𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝛽 𝛾 𝑙 𝑚

𝛼𝛽𝛾
̅ 𝑖𝑗𝑘
𝐴𝜌𝜎 = 𝑖 . 𝑗 . 𝑘 . 𝜌 . 𝜎 𝐴𝑙𝑚
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥̅ 𝜕𝑥̅
Putting α = ρ in the above equation and summing over α from 1 to N.
𝜕𝑥̅ 𝜕𝑥̅ 𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛼
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝛽 𝛾 𝑙 𝑚
𝛼𝛽𝛾 𝑖𝑗𝑘
𝐴̅𝛼𝜎 = 𝑖 . 𝑗 . 𝑘 . 𝛼 . 𝜎 𝐴𝑙𝑚
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥̅ 𝜕𝑥̅

𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛽 𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛾 𝜕𝑥 𝑙 𝜕𝑥 𝑚 𝑖𝑗𝑘

= . . . 𝐴𝑙𝑚
𝜕𝑥 𝑖 𝜕𝑥 𝑘 𝜕𝑥 𝑖 𝜕𝑥̅ 𝜎

𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛽 𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛾 𝜕𝑥 𝑚 𝑖𝑗𝑘

= . . 𝛿𝑖𝑙 𝐴𝑙𝑚
𝜕𝑥 𝑗 𝜕𝑥 𝑘 𝜕𝑥̅ 𝜎

𝑖𝑗𝑘
This shows that 𝐴𝑖𝑚 is a tensor of contravariant rank 2 and covariant rank 1.This
process is known as the contraction of a tensor. When a tensor is contracted by
equaling one of its contra variant indices to one of its co-variant indices, the
resulting entity is a tensor whose contra variant and covariant ranks is reduced by
one each, thus reduced the total rank by 2.
𝑖𝑗𝑘 𝑖𝑗𝑘 𝑖𝑗𝑘 𝑖𝑗𝑘
𝐴𝑙𝑖 , 𝐴𝑗𝑚 , 𝐴𝑙𝑘 are various contracted forms of tensor 𝐴𝑙𝑚
𝑖𝑗𝑘
A tensor can be repeatedly contracted. A tensor 𝐴𝑖𝑚 of total rank 5, on contraction
𝑖𝑗𝑘
gives the tensor 𝐴𝑖𝑚 of total rank 3 which can be further contracted to give the
𝑖𝑗𝑘 𝑖𝑗𝑘
tensor 𝐴𝑖𝑗 𝑜𝑟 𝐴𝑖𝑘 contravariant rank 1.

Qn) Contract the tensor 𝑨𝒊𝒋 and establish that scalars are tensors of rank zero.

𝜕𝑥̅ 𝜕𝑥 𝛼 𝑗
𝐴𝛽𝛼̅ = 𝑖 . 𝛽 . 𝐴𝑗𝑖
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥̅

When α=β
𝜕𝑥̅ 𝜕𝑥 𝛼 𝑗
𝐴𝛽𝛼̅ = 𝑖 . 𝛼 . 𝐴𝑗𝑖
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥̅

𝜕𝑥 𝑗 𝑗
= 𝐴𝑗𝑖 = 𝛿𝑖 𝐴𝑗𝑖
𝜕𝑥 𝑖

i.e. 𝐴̅𝛼𝛼 = 𝐴𝑖𝑖

Here 𝐴𝛼̅𝛼 is a tensor of rank zero which is invariant under transformation

When 𝐴𝑗𝑖 is contracted its rank get reduced to 2-2=0.Because initially the rank of 𝐴𝑗𝑖
is two. Now it loses two ranks and becomes a tensor of rank zero, which is
invariant.
𝒊𝒋
Qn) Contract the tensor 𝑨𝒌𝒍 to a tensor of rank zero
𝑖𝑗
Transformation equation 𝐴𝑘𝑙 is

𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛼 𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛽 𝜕𝑥 𝑘 𝜕𝑥 𝑙
𝛼𝛽 𝑖𝑗
𝐴̅𝛶𝛿 = 𝑖 𝐴𝑘𝑙
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝑘 𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛶 𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛿

During first contraction let α = Υ

𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛼 𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛽 𝜕𝑥 𝑘 𝜕𝑥 𝑙
𝛼𝛽 𝑖𝑗
𝐴̅𝛼𝛿 = 𝑖 𝐴𝑘𝑙
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝑗 𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛼 𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛿

𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛽 𝜕𝑥 𝑙 𝑖𝑗
= 𝛿𝑖𝑘 𝐴𝑘𝑙
𝜕𝑥 𝑗 𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛿

𝛼𝛽 𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛽 𝜕𝑥 𝑙 𝑖𝑗
𝐴̅𝛼𝛿 = 𝐴𝑖𝑙
𝜕𝑥 𝑗 𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛿

This is a tensor of rank 4-2=2

During the consecutive contraction let β=δ

𝛽 𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛽 𝜕𝑥 𝑙 𝑗
𝐴𝛽̅ = 𝐴𝑙
𝜕𝑥 𝑗 𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛽
𝜕𝑥 𝑙 𝑗
= 𝐴𝑙
𝜕𝑥 𝑗

𝑗 𝑗
𝛿𝑗𝑙 𝐴𝑙 = 𝐴𝑗

𝛽 𝑗
𝐴𝛽̅ = 𝐴𝑗
𝑖𝑗
Thus a double contraction on the tensor 𝐴𝑘𝑙 is an invariant
𝑖𝑗
During the first contraction, the rank of 𝐴𝑘𝑙 becomes 2 which was initially 4.After
𝑗
the second contraction the rank of it becomes zero which was 2. Thus 𝐴𝑗 becomes
scalar which is an invariant or a tensor of rank zero.
Inner product

If it is possible to apply operation of contraction to the outer product two tensors,

the resultant tensor formed is called the inner product.
𝑖𝑗 𝑝 𝑖𝑗
Consider two tensors 𝐴𝑘 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵𝑞 .Consider the set of functions 𝐴𝑘 𝐵𝑞𝑘 where i,j,
are free indices. (According to the convention the summation over k from 1 to N is
implied) since there are only three free indices ,there will be N3 functions
𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛼 𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛽 𝜕𝑥 𝑘 𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛾 𝜕𝑥 𝑞
𝛼𝛽 𝛾 𝑖𝑗 𝑝
𝐴̅𝛶 . 𝐵̅𝜎 = 𝑖 𝐴𝑘 . 𝐵𝑞
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝑗 𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛶 𝜕𝑥 𝑝 𝜕𝑥̅ 𝜎

𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛼 𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛽 𝜕𝑥 𝑞 𝑖𝑗 𝑝
= 𝛿𝑝𝑘 𝐴𝑘𝑙 𝐵𝑞
𝜕𝑥 𝑖 𝜕𝑥 𝑗 𝜕𝑥̅ 𝜎

𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛼 𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛽 𝜕𝑥 𝑞 𝑖𝑗
= 𝐴𝑘 𝐵𝑞𝑘
𝜕𝑥 𝑖 𝜕𝑥 𝑗 𝜕𝑥̅ 𝜎

𝑖𝑗
The N3 entities 𝐴𝑘 𝐵𝑞𝑘 transforms like the components of a tensor of contravariant
rank 2 and covariant rank 1.Let the components of new tensor in barred and the
unbarred system will be
𝛼𝛽 𝛼𝛽 𝛾 𝑖𝑗 𝑖𝑗
Let 𝐶𝜎̅ = 𝐴̅𝛾 𝐵𝜎 𝐶𝑞 = 𝐴𝑘 𝐵𝑞𝑘
𝑖𝑗 𝑖𝑗 𝑝
𝐶𝑞 is said to be inner product of two tensors 𝐴𝑘 𝑎𝑛𝑑𝐵𝑞
𝑖𝑗 𝑝 𝑖𝑗 𝑝 𝑖𝑗 𝑝
𝐴𝑘 𝐵𝑖 , 𝐴𝑘 𝐵𝑗 are examples of inner product of 𝐴𝑘 𝑎𝑛𝑑𝐵𝑞 . In taking the inner
product of two tensors, one contra variant index of one tensor should be equated to
one covariant index of the other.

Qn) Show that the inner product of Ai and Bj is an invariant

Outer product is Ai. Bj

Transformation equation is
𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛼 𝜕𝑥 𝑗
𝐴𝛼̅ 𝐵̅𝛽 = 𝑖 𝐴𝑖 𝐵𝑗
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛽

𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛼 𝜕𝑥 𝑗
𝐶𝛽̅ 𝛼 = 𝐶𝑖
𝜕𝑥 𝑖 𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛽 𝑗
Where 𝐶𝑗𝑖 = 𝐴𝑖 𝐵𝑗

On contracting the inner product

𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛼 𝜕𝑥 𝑗
𝐶𝛼̅ 𝛼 = 𝐶𝑖
𝜕𝑥 𝑖 𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛼 𝑗

𝑗
= 𝛿𝑖 . 𝐶𝑗𝑖

𝐶𝛼̅ 𝛼 = 𝐶𝑖𝑖 i.e. the transformation not connected by a partial derivative. It is an invariant.

Form two inner products of rank 2 and obtain a rank zero by suitable operations on
the tensors 𝐴𝑖𝑗 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵𝑘𝑙

Let the product be equal to 𝐴𝑖𝑗 𝐵𝑘𝑙

Transformation equation is
𝜕𝑥 𝑖 𝜕𝑥 𝑗 𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛾 𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛿
𝐴̅𝛼𝛽 𝐵̅𝛾𝛿 = 𝐴𝑖𝑗 𝐵𝑘𝑙
𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛼 𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛽 𝜕𝑥 𝑘 𝜕𝑥 𝑙

𝛾𝛿 𝜕𝑥 𝑖 𝜕𝑥 𝑗 𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛾 𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛿
𝐶𝛶̅ = 𝐶𝑖𝑗𝑘𝑙
𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛼 𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛽 𝜕𝑥 𝑘 𝜕𝑥 𝑙

Where 𝐶𝑖𝑗𝑘𝑙 = 𝐴𝑖𝑗 𝐵𝑘𝑙

On contracting the inner product α=ϒ

𝜕𝑥 𝑖 𝜕𝑥 𝑗 𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛼 𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛿
̅ 𝛼𝛿 =
𝐶𝛼𝛽 𝐶𝑖𝑗𝑘𝑙
𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛼 𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛽 𝜕𝑥 𝑘 𝜕𝑥 𝑘

𝜕𝑥 𝑗 𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛿
= 𝐶𝑖𝑗𝑘𝑙
𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛽 𝜕𝑥 𝑘

𝜕𝑥 𝑗 𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛿
= 𝐶𝑖𝑗𝑖𝑙
𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛽 𝜕𝑥 𝑘

̅ 𝛼𝛿 can be written as 𝐷
From the above relation 𝐶𝛼𝛽 ̅𝛽𝛿 which is a tensor of rank two.
Since there are product of two partial derivatives in the transformation equation,the
above relation can be written as
𝜕𝑥 𝑗 𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛿
̅𝛽𝛿 =
𝐷 𝐷𝑗𝑙
𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛽 𝜕𝑥 𝑘
Contracting again δ=β
𝜕𝑥 𝑗 𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛽
̅𝛽 =
𝐷 𝐷𝑗𝑙
𝛽 𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛽 𝜕𝑥 𝑘

𝑗 𝑗
= 𝛿𝑘 𝐷𝑗𝑙 = 𝐷𝑗

𝛽
̅ is a tensor of rank 0, which is invariant under
From the above relation 𝐷𝛽
transformation

Qn) Apply contraction to 𝜹𝒊𝒋 and find its value

i=j

So 𝛿𝑖𝑖 = 𝛿11 + 𝛿22 + ⋯ . 𝛿𝑁𝑁

=N

Quotient law

Quotient law states that if the inner product of an entity with an arbitrary tensor is a
tensor, the entity is a tensor

If the inner product of the function X (i,j)and Ak is find to be a tensor then X(i,j) is
also a tensor.

Illustration

A quantity A (i,j) is such that its ‘inner product’ with an arbitrary tensor Bk is a
contra variant tensor Ci show that A(i,j) a tensor. Deduce its nature and transform
equation

We have inner product

A (i, j) Bk = Ci

The outer product is

A (i , j) Bk = D ⟶(1)

The inner product is

A(i , j) Bj = Ci ⟶(2) ; j=k

The tensor on transformation gives,

𝐴̅(𝛼,𝛽) 𝐵̅𝛽 = 𝐶̅ 𝛼 ⟶ (3)

The transformation equation is

𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛽 𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛼
𝐴̅(𝛼,𝛽) 𝑗 𝐵 𝑗 = 𝑖 𝐶 𝑖
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥

Substituting the value of Ci from (2)

𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛽𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛼
𝐴̅(𝛼,𝛽) 𝑗 𝐵 𝑗 = 𝑖 𝐴(𝑖,𝑗) ⟶ (5)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥

𝜕𝑥 𝑗
Multiplying the R.HS and L.H.S of eqn (5) with
𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛽

𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛽 𝜕𝑥 𝑗 𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛼 𝜕𝑥 𝑗
𝐴̅(𝛼,𝛽) 𝑗 𝛽
= 𝐴(𝑖,𝑗)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥̅ 𝜕𝑥 𝑖 𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛽

𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛼 𝜕𝑥 𝑗
𝐴̅(𝛼,𝛽) = 𝑖 𝐴(𝑖,𝑗)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛽

𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛼 𝜕𝑥 𝑗
𝐴𝛽̅𝛼 = 𝑖 𝐴(𝑖,𝑗)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛽

𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛼 𝜕𝑥 𝑗
= 𝐴𝑗𝑖 ⟶ (𝟔)
𝜕𝑥 𝑖 𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛽

The relation is tensorial, and the nature of the tensor is given by the above relation.

Qn) If the inner product of a quantity X(i , j , k)with an arbitrary tensor Al is

a covariant tensor Bjk show that X(i , j , k) is a tensor. Find its transformation
equation

Let the outer product is

X (i, j, k) Al = C ⟶(1)

The inner product is

𝑋(𝑖,𝑗,𝑘) 𝐴𝑖 = 𝐵𝑗𝑘 ⟶ (2)

The transformation equation is

𝑋̅(,𝛽,𝛾) 𝐴̅𝛼 = 𝐵̅𝛽𝛾

𝜕𝑥 𝑖 𝜕𝑥 𝑗 𝜕𝑥 𝑘
𝑋̅(𝛼,𝛽,𝛾) 𝐴 =
𝛼 𝑖
𝐵𝑗𝑘
𝜕𝑥̅ 𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛽 𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛾

But 𝐵𝑗𝑘 = 𝑋(𝑖,𝑗,𝑘) 𝐴𝑖

𝜕𝑥 𝑖 𝜕𝑥 𝑗 𝜕𝑥 𝑘
𝑋̅(𝛼,𝛽,𝛾) 𝐴 =
𝛼 𝑖
𝑋(𝑖,𝑗,𝑘)
𝜕𝑥̅ 𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛽 𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛾

𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛼
Multiplying by we get
𝜕𝑥 𝑖

𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛼 𝜕𝑥 𝑗 𝜕𝑥 𝑘
𝑋̅(𝛼,𝛽,𝛾) 𝑖 𝑋(𝑖,𝑗,𝑘)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛽 𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛾

The relation is tensorial; the nature the tensor is given by

𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛼 𝜕𝑥 𝑗 𝜕𝑥 𝑘
𝑋̅𝛽𝛾
𝛼
= 𝑖 𝑖
𝑋𝑗𝑘
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛽 𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛾

Qn) If 𝑨𝒊𝒌 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑩𝒊𝒍 are two tensors, show that their outer product is not a
tensor.
𝑖𝑗
Transformation equation for𝐴𝑘 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵𝑙𝑖

𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛼 𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛽 𝜕𝑥 𝑘
𝛼𝛽 𝑖𝑗
𝐴̅𝛾 = 𝑖 𝐴𝑘
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝑗 𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛾

𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛼 𝜕𝑥 𝑙
𝐵̅𝛿𝛼 = 𝑖 𝐵𝑙𝑖
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛿

𝑖𝑗
Outer product is 𝐴𝑘 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵𝑙𝑖 is given by

𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛼 𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛽 𝜕𝑥 𝑘 𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛼 𝜕𝑥 𝑙

𝛼𝛽 𝑖𝑗
𝐴̅𝛾 𝐵̅𝛿𝛼 = 𝑖 𝐴𝑘 𝐵𝑙𝑖
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝑗 𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛾 𝜕𝑥 𝑖 𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛿

𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛼 2 𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛽 𝜕𝑥 𝑘 𝜕𝑥 𝑙 𝑖𝑗
=( ) 𝐴𝑘 𝐵𝑙𝑖
𝜕𝑥 𝑖 𝜕𝑥 𝑗 𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛾 𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛿

𝛼 2 𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛽 𝜕𝑥 𝑘 𝜕𝑥 𝑙
̅ 𝛼𝛼𝛽 = (𝜕𝑥̅ 𝑖 )
𝐶𝛾𝛿
𝑖𝑖𝑗
𝐶𝑘𝑙
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝑗 𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛾 𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛿
 𝑖𝑖𝑗
From the above relation it is clear that 𝐶𝑘𝑙 is not a tensor because its
transformation equation contains partial derivative of degree two i.e. degree greater
𝑖𝑖𝑗 𝑖𝑗
than one. So 𝐶𝑘𝑙 , which is the outer product of 𝐴𝑘 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵𝑙𝑖 is not a tensor
𝒊𝒋 𝒊𝒋
Qn) If 𝑨𝒌 is a tensor show that 𝑨𝒌𝒍 is not a tensor.
𝑖𝑗
Given 𝐴𝑘 is a tensor .So its transformation equation is

𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛼 𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛽 𝜕𝑥 𝑘
𝛼𝛽 𝑖𝑗
𝐴̅𝛾 = 𝑖 𝐴𝑘
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝑗 𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛾

𝐴𝑖𝑖𝑘𝑙 is transferred as 𝐴̅𝛼𝛼

𝛾𝛿 .Its transformation equation is

𝛼 𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛼 𝜕𝑥 𝑘 𝜕𝑥 𝑙
̅𝛾𝛿 = 𝜕𝑥̅ 𝑖
𝐴𝛼𝛼 𝐴𝑖𝑖𝑘𝑙
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝑖 𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛾 𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛿

𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛼 2 𝜕𝑥 𝑘 𝜕𝑥 𝑙
=( ) 𝐴𝑖𝑖𝑘𝑙
𝜕𝑥 𝑖 𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛾 𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛿

From the above relation it is clear that 𝐴𝑖𝑖𝑘𝑙 is not a tensor. Became the
transformation equation of 𝐴𝑖𝑖𝑘𝑙 has terms which are partial derivatives of degree
2(greater than 1). A tensor is a quantity whose transformation equation will contain
terms which are partial derivatives of degree 0 or 1

Line element and Fundamental tensors

Consider an orthogonal Cartesian co-ordinate system of N-dimension. Any point

space can be represented by a set of N variable(x1, x2…xN).The distance between
any two neighbouring points is given by
2 2 2 2
𝑑𝑥 2 = 𝑑𝑥 1 + 𝑑𝑥 2 + 𝑑𝑥 3 + ⋯ … . +𝑑𝑥 𝑁 (1)
2
= ∑𝑛𝑖 𝑑𝑥 𝑖

=dxi dxi

dx2 = dxi dxi ⟶ (2)

Such an orthogonal Cartesian co-ordinate system is called a Euclidean and the

corresponding space is called Euclidean space (Euclidean geometry is the study of
flat surface) But in general curvilinear co-ordinate system of N- dimensions, the
line segment is given by

dx2= gij dxi dxj ⟶ (3)

[𝑑𝑠 2 = 𝑑𝑟 2 + 𝑟 2 𝑑𝜃 2 + 𝑟 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛²𝜃𝑑∅2 ]

Where gij are functions of xi , such a co-ordinate system is called Riemannian and
the corresponding space is called Riemannian space (Riemannian geometry is the
study of curved surface).If all the coefficients gij are independent of xi , the space
becomes a Euclidean space

Since the distance between any two points is independent of the co-ordinate
system, ds2 must be a scalar invariant

i.e. gij dxi dxj must be a tensor of rank 0.But dxi and dxj are contra variant vectors
and their outer product must be contra variant tensor of rank 2.Hence by quotient
law gij must be a co-variant tensor of rank 2.It is called the metric tensor or the first
fundamental tensor in Riemannian space. The components of gij can be represented
as a matrix is the form
𝑔11 𝑔12 … 𝑔1𝑁
𝑔21 𝑔22 …
𝑔𝑖𝑗 = [ ⋮ 𝑔2𝑁 ]
⋮ ⋮
𝑔𝑁1 𝑔𝑁2 … 𝑔𝑁𝑁

Qn) Find the metric for line segment

1. In three dimensional Euclidean space

2 2 2
𝑑𝑠 2 = 𝑑𝑥 1 + 𝑑𝑥 2 + 𝑑𝑥 3
1 0 0
𝑔𝑖𝑗 = [0 1 0]
0 0 1
The determinant of coefficient matrix is

|gij|=1
2. In spherical polar co-ordinates

𝑑𝑠 2 = 𝑑𝑟 2 + 𝑟 2 𝑑𝜃 2 + 𝑟 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃𝑑∅2
1 0 0
𝑔𝑖𝑗 = [0 𝑟 2 0 ]
0 0 𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃
2

|𝑔𝑖𝑗 | = 𝑟 4 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃

3. In cylindrical co-ordinates
2
𝑑𝑠 2 = 𝑑𝜌2 + 𝑝2 𝑑∅2 + 𝑑 2
1 0 0
𝑔𝑖𝑗 = [0 𝜌2 0]
0 0 1
|𝑔𝑖𝑗 | = 𝜌2

Qn) Find the metric for a two dimensional surface of a sphere of constant
radius ‘a’.

r = a, const

Generally ds2=dr2+r2dθ2+r2sin2θdϕ2

On the surface of the sphere r = a

dr = 0

ds2=a2dθ2+a2sin2θdϕ2

So the metric becomes two dimensional

2
𝑔𝑖𝑗 = [𝑎 0 ]
0 𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃
2

|𝑔𝑖 | = 𝑎4 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃
Qn) Consider a three dimensional co-ordinate system (u, v, w) which are
related to the Cartesian co-ordinate system by x = vw, y = uw and z = uw.
Obtain the Riemannian metric of the co-ordinate system in terms of u, v, w
and Show that |gij|= 4 u2 v2 w2

ds2= dx2+dy2+dz2

dx2= (v dw + w dv )2

= v2dw2+w2dv2+2vwdwdv

dy2 = (udw + wdu)2

= u2dw2+w2du2+2uwdwdu

dz2 = (udv+vdu)2

= u2dv2+v2du2+2uvdudv

ds2 = dx2+dy2+dz2

= v2dw2+w2dv2+2vwdwdv+u2dw2+w2du2+2uwdwdu+u2dv2+v2du2+2uvdudv

𝑣̅ 2 + 𝑤 2 𝑢𝑣̅ 𝑢𝑤
𝑔𝑖𝑗 = [ 𝑢𝑣̅ 𝑢 + 𝑤2
2
𝑣̅𝑤 ]
𝑢𝑤 𝑣̅𝑤 𝑢 + 𝑣̅ 2
2

𝑣̅ 2 + 𝑤 2 𝑢𝑣̅ 𝑢𝑤
𝑔𝑖𝑗 = [ 𝑢𝑣̅ 𝑢 + 𝑤2
2
𝑣̅𝑤 ]
𝑢𝑤 𝑣̅𝑤 𝑢 + 𝑣̅ 2
2

= [v2+w2][(u2+w2)(u2+v2)-v2w2] – uv [uv(u2+v2)-uvw2]+uw[uwv2+uw(u2+w2)]

= (v2+w2)[u4+u2v2+w2u2+w2v2-v2w2] -uv[uvu2+uv3-
uvw2]+uw[uwv2+uwu2+uw3]

= 4u2v2w2
Qn) Find the fundamental metric tensor and its determinant in which the line
𝟐 𝟐
element is given by 𝒅𝒔𝟐 = 𝟑𝒅𝒙𝟏 + 𝟑𝒅𝒙𝟑 + 𝟒𝒅𝒙𝟏 𝒅𝒙𝟐 + 𝟖𝒅𝒙𝟏 𝒅𝒙𝟑 +
𝟖𝒅𝒙𝟐 𝒅𝒙𝟑 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑺𝒉𝒐𝒘 𝒕𝒉𝒂𝒕 |𝒈𝒊𝒋 | = 𝟒

3 2 4
𝑔𝑖𝑗 = [2 0 4]
4 4 3
|gij|=3(-16)-2(6-16) +4(8)

= - 48+20+32

=4

Qn) Show that gij is a covariant tensor

Let xi and 𝑥̅ 𝛼 be the two co-ordinate systems is Riemannian space

In the first co-ordinate system

ds2= gij dxi dxj ⟶ (1)

And in the second co-ordinate system

𝑑𝑠 2 = 𝑔̅𝛼𝛽 𝑑𝑥̅ 𝛼 𝑑𝑥̅ 𝛽 ⟶ (2)

ds2 is invariant

But 𝑥 𝑖 = 𝑥 𝑖 (𝑥̅ 𝛼 )

𝑥 𝑗 = 𝑥 𝑗 (𝑥̅ 𝛽 )

𝜕𝑥 𝑖 𝜕𝑥 𝑗
𝑑𝑠 2 = 𝑔𝑖𝑗 𝛼
𝑑𝑥̅ 𝛼 𝑑𝑥̅ 𝛽
𝜕𝑥̅ 𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛽

𝜕𝑥 𝑖 𝜕𝑥 𝑗
= 𝑔𝑖𝑗 𝑑𝑥̅ 𝛼 𝑑𝑥̅ 𝛽 ⟶ (3)
𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛼 𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛽

Substituting for ds2 from eqn (2)

𝜕𝑥 𝑖 𝜕𝑥 𝑗
𝑔̅𝛼𝛽 𝑑𝑥̅ 𝛼 𝑑𝑥̅ 𝛽 = 𝑔𝑖𝑗 𝑑𝑥̅ 𝛼 𝑑𝑥̅ 𝛽
𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛼 𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛽

𝜕𝑥 𝑖 𝜕𝑥 𝑗
𝑔̅𝛼𝛽 = 𝑔𝑖𝑗 ⟶ (4)
𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛼 𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛽
i.e. gij is a covariant tensor of rank two . α and β are the indices which represent the
coordinates (𝑥̅ 1 , 𝑥̅ 2 , … 𝑥̅ 𝑁 ).Similarly i and j are indices representing the co-
ordinates (x1,x2……xN).There is no change in the relation on interchange of indices
i and j .So gij is symmetric

gij = gji

And 𝑔̅𝛼𝛽 = 𝑔̅𝛽𝛼

i.e. 𝑔̅𝛼𝛽 is also symmetric

Reciprocal tensor or conjugate tensor

Let gij represents a symmetric co-variant tensor such that gij together with its
partial derivatives are continuous.

Let g = |gij| ≠ 0
𝑔11 𝑔12 … 𝑔1𝑁
𝑔 𝑔₂₂ …
𝑔𝑖𝑗 = [ 21 ⋮ 𝑔2𝑁 ]
⋮ ⋮
𝑔𝑁1 𝑔𝑁2 … 𝑔𝑁𝑁

|gij | = g11G11+g12G12+…..g1NG1N

=g
𝐺 𝑖𝑗
Where Gij is the co-factor of the term gij. Let us define 𝑔𝑖𝑗 =
𝑔

gij is called the reciprocal metric tensor or the tensor conjugate to gij . It is a
symmetric contra variant tensor of rank 2.

Qn) 𝑷𝒓𝒐𝒗𝒆 𝒕𝒉𝒂𝒕 𝒈𝒊𝒋 𝒈𝒌𝒋 = 𝜹𝒌𝒊

𝑔11 𝑔₁₁ … 𝑔1𝑁

𝑔₂₁ 𝑔₂₂ … 𝑔2𝑁
Let 𝑔𝑖𝑗 = [ ⋮ ]
⋮ ⋮ ⋮
𝑔𝑁1 𝑔𝑁2 … 𝑔𝑁𝑁

For N=3

|𝑔𝑖𝑗 | = 𝑔11 𝐺 11 + 𝑔12 𝐺 12 + 𝑔13 𝐺 13 = 𝑔

Or

𝑔21 𝐺 21 + 𝑔22 𝐺 22 + 𝑔23 𝐺 23 = 𝑔

𝑔11 𝐺 21 + 𝑔12 𝐺 22 + 𝑔13 𝐺 23 = 0

Hence 𝑔𝑖𝑗 𝐺 𝑖𝑗 = 𝑔 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑔𝑖𝑗 𝐺𝑘𝑗 = 0

𝐺 𝑖𝑗 𝐺 𝑘𝑗
i.e. 𝑔𝑖𝑗 = 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑔𝑖𝑗 =0
𝑔 𝑔

i.e. 𝑔𝑖𝑗 𝑔𝑖𝑗 = 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑔𝑖𝑗 𝑔𝑘𝑗 = 0

i.e. 𝑔𝑖𝑗 𝑔𝑘𝑗 = 𝛿𝑖𝑘

Where gij and gij are reciprocal tensors.

For Cartesian co-ordinate system the reciprocal metric tensor is

1 0 0
𝑖𝑗
𝑔 = [0 1 0] |𝑔𝑖𝑗 | = 1
0 0 1
To find reciprocal metric tensor, take co-factor of each term and divide them by the
determinant.

In spherical coordinate system

1 0 0
𝑔𝑖𝑗 = [0 𝑟 2 0 ]
0 0 𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃
2

|gij|= r7sin2θ
𝑟 4 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃
0 0
𝑟 4 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃
𝑟 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃
𝑔𝑖𝑗 = 0 0
𝑟 4 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃
𝑟2
[ 0 0
𝑟 4 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃]
 1 0 0
1
= [0 𝑟2
0 ]
1
0 0
𝑟 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃

For cylindrical co-ordinate system

1 0 0
𝑔𝑖𝑗 = [0 𝜌2 0]
0 0 1
1 0 0
1
𝑔𝑖𝑗 = [0 𝜌2
0]
0 0 1
Qn) Find the reciprocal metric tensor of the metric 𝒅𝒔𝟐 = 𝒅𝒙𝟏 𝟐 − 𝟐𝒅𝒙𝟐 𝟐 +
𝟑𝒅𝒙𝟑 𝟐 − 𝟖𝒅𝒙𝟐 𝒅𝒙𝟑
1 0 0
𝑔𝑖𝑗 = [0 −2 −4]
0 −4 3
|gij| = 1(-6+-16) = -22
1 0 0
−3 −2
𝑔𝑖𝑗 = [0 22 11 ]
−2 1
0
11 11

Qn) Show that gij is a contra variant tensor

The fundamental relation for the line element is ds2=gij dxi dxj.It shows gij is a co-
variant tensor of rank two. Calculate the inner product of gij with another tensor.

gij Aj= Bi ,which is a covariant of rank 1.

Consider Bi gij = gij Aj gij = Bj

i.e. Aj gij gij= Bj

By quotient law gij gj must be invariant. But gij is a co-variant tensor rank of two.
Again by quotient law gij is a contra variant tensor of rank two.
Associated tensor

A tensor obtained from an arbitrary tensor by forming an inner product with the
given tensor and any one of the first metric or reciprocal metric tensor is called an
associated tensor of the given tensor.

Ai gij ⟶Aj

We say that Ai and Aj are associated to one another through gij

Ai gij ⟶Aj

𝐴𝑗𝑖 𝑔𝑖𝑘 ⟶ 𝐴𝑗𝑘

𝐴𝑗𝑖 𝑔 𝑗𝑘 ⟶ 𝐴𝑖𝑘

Raising and lowering of indices

Taking the inner product of a tensor with first metric tensor lowers one of its
indices converts one of its contra variant indexes to co-variant. Similarly taking the
inner product of a tensor with reciprocal metric tensor raises its index i.e. converts
one of its co-variant index to contra variant
𝑗
𝐴𝑘𝑗 𝑔𝑘𝑖 ⟶ 𝐴𝑖
𝑖𝑗 𝑗
𝐴𝑘 𝑔𝑖𝑙 ⟶ 𝐴𝑘𝑙
𝑖𝑗 𝑖𝑗𝑚
𝐴𝑘𝑙 𝑔𝑙𝑚 ⟶ 𝐴𝑘

Qn) Show that in a Cartesian co-ordinate system, the contra variant and the
co-variant components of a vector are identical

Ai and Ai be the contra variant and co-variant components of a vector with respect
to the Cartesian co-ordinate

Ai=Aj gij

For Cartesian co-ordinate system gij (no summation over i) and gij=0 if i≠j
Ai= Ai gij = Ai , i.e. there is no distinction between co-variant 2 contra variant
components.

Tensor calculus

Partial derivative of a scalar function of rank zero with respect to co-ordinate is a

tensor (co-variant).

In general co-ordinate derivatives of tensors are not tensors. But it is possible to

construct expressions involving partial derivatives of tensor and those of the metric
tensor which transforms like a tensor. Such expressions are called co-variant
derivative.

Notations for co-ordinate derivatives

𝑖 𝜕𝑥 𝑖
𝑥,𝛼 =
𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛼

𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛼
𝑥̅,𝑖𝛼 ⟶
𝜕𝑥 𝑖

𝑖 𝛼 𝜕𝑥 𝑖 𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛼
𝑥,𝛼 𝑥̅,𝑗 = . = 𝛿𝑗𝑖
𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛼 𝜕𝑥 𝑗

𝑖 𝜕²𝑥 𝑖
𝑥,𝛼𝛽 =
𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛼 𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛽

𝑗 𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛼 𝜕𝑥 𝑗
𝛼
𝑥̅,𝑖𝑗 𝑥,𝛽 = . = 𝛿𝛽𝛼
𝜕𝑥 𝑗 𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛽

𝜕𝑔𝑖𝑗
𝑔𝑖𝑗,𝑘 =
𝜕𝑥 𝑘

𝑖𝑗 𝜕𝑔𝑖𝑗
𝑔,𝑘 =
𝜕𝑥 𝑘

Christoffel symbols

These are symbols involved in the co-ordinate derivatives of metric tensors.

Symbol of the first kind is
1
[𝑖𝑗, 𝑘] = [𝑔𝑖𝑘,𝑗 + 𝑔𝑗𝑘,𝑖 − 𝑔𝑖𝑗,𝑘 ]
2

= [k, ij]
 1 𝜕𝑔𝑖𝑘 𝜕𝑔𝑗𝑘 𝜕𝑔𝑖𝑗
[𝑖𝑗, 𝑘] = [ + − ]
2 𝜕𝑥 𝑗 𝜕𝑥 𝑖 𝜕𝑥 𝑘

It is also represented as [k, ij]

𝑖
Symbol of the second kind is defined as {𝑗 𝑘} 𝑜𝑟 Г𝑖𝑗𝑘 = 𝑔𝑖𝑙 [𝑗𝑘, 𝑙]

1 𝜕𝑔𝑗𝑙 𝜕𝑔𝑘𝑙 𝜕𝑔𝑗𝑘

= 𝑔𝑖𝑙 [ + − ]
2 𝜕𝑥 𝑘 𝜕𝑥 𝑗 𝜕𝑥 𝑘

Properties

1. [i j, k] = [j i, k] due to the symmetry of the fundamental metric tensor

𝑖
2. Г𝑗𝑘 = Г𝑖𝑘𝑗 due to the symmetry of the fundamental metric tensor

3. [𝑖𝑗, 𝑘] = 𝑔𝑘𝑙 Г𝑙𝑖𝑗

𝑖
Г𝑗𝑘 = 𝑔𝑖𝑙 [𝑗𝑘, 𝑙]

𝑅𝐻𝑆 𝑔𝑘𝑙 Г𝑙𝑖𝑗 = 𝑔𝑘𝑙 𝑔𝑙𝑚 [𝑖𝑗, 𝑚]

= 𝛿𝑘𝑚 [𝑖𝑗, 𝑚]

Expanding

𝛿𝑘𝑚 [𝑖𝑗, 𝑚] = 𝛿𝑘1 [𝑖𝑗, 1] + 𝛿𝑘2 [𝑖𝑗, 2] + ⋯ + 𝛿𝑘𝑘 [𝑖𝑗, 𝑘] + ⋯.

= 0 +…+ [ij, k] + 0… = [ij, k]

[𝑖𝑗, 𝑘]𝑔𝑙𝑘 = Г𝑙𝑖𝑗

𝑖
Г𝑗𝑘 𝑔𝑖𝑙 = [𝑖𝑘, 𝑙]

Multiplication of the first symbol of the reciprocal tensor converts it into the
symbol of second kind. Similarly multiplication of second kind symbol by first
metric tensor converts it into a symbol of first kind.
𝜕𝑔𝑖𝑗
4. = 𝑔𝑖𝑗,𝑘 = [𝑖𝑘, 𝑗] + [𝑖𝑘, 𝑖]
𝜕𝑥𝑘

R.H.S = [i k, j] + [j k, i]
 1 1
= [𝑔𝑖𝑗,𝑘 + 𝑔𝑘𝑗,𝑖 − 𝑔𝑖𝑘,𝑗 ] + [𝑔𝑗𝑖,𝑘 + 𝑔𝑘𝑖,𝑗 − 𝑔𝑗𝑘,𝑖 ]
2 2

𝜕𝑔𝑖𝑗
𝑔𝑖𝑗,𝑘 =
𝜕𝑥 𝑘

𝑖𝑚 𝜕𝑔𝑖𝑚 𝑚 𝑖
5. 𝑔𝑙𝑚 = = −𝑔𝑖𝑗 [{𝑗 𝑙 }] − 𝑔𝑚𝑘 [{ }]
𝜕𝑥 𝑙 𝑘𝑙
We have 𝑔𝑖𝑗 𝑔𝑗𝑘 = 𝛿𝑘𝑖 ⟶ (1)

Differentiating w: r: to xl
𝜕𝑔𝑖𝑗 𝜕𝑔𝑗𝑘
𝑔𝑗𝑘 + 𝑔𝑖𝑗 =0
𝜕𝑥 𝑙 𝜕𝑥 𝑙

𝜕𝑔𝑖𝑗 𝜕𝑔𝑗𝑘
𝑔𝑗𝑘 = −𝑔𝑖𝑗
𝜕𝑥 𝑙 𝜕𝑥 𝑙

Multiplying gkm
𝜕𝑔𝑖𝑗 𝜕𝑔𝑗𝑘
𝑔𝑘𝑚 𝑔𝑗𝑘 = −𝑔𝑘𝑚 𝑔𝑖𝑗
𝜕𝑥 𝑙 𝜕𝑥 𝑙

𝜕𝑔𝑖𝑗
𝛿𝑗𝑚 = −𝑔𝑘𝑚 𝑔𝑖𝑗 [𝑔𝑗𝑘,𝑙 ]
𝜕𝑥 𝑙

On expanding
𝜕𝑔𝑖𝑚
= −𝑔𝑘𝑚 𝑔𝑖𝑗 [[𝑗𝑙, 𝑘] + [𝑘𝑙, 𝑗]]
𝜕𝑥 𝑙

= −𝑔𝑘𝑚 𝑔𝑖𝑗 [𝑗𝑙, 𝑘] − 𝑔𝑘𝑚 𝑔𝑖𝑗 [𝑘𝑙, 𝑗]

= −𝑔𝑖𝑗 Г𝑗𝑙𝑚 − 𝑔𝑘𝑚 Г𝑖𝑘𝑙

𝑚 𝑖
= −𝑔𝑖𝑗 {𝑗 𝑙 } − 𝑔𝑘𝑚 { }
𝑘𝑙
Qn) Find the Christoffel symbol of the and second kind in the 2D space of
surface of a sphere of constant radius ‘a’

On the surface of the sphere

ds2 = a2dθ2+a2 sin2θ dϕ2

 2
𝑔𝑖𝑗 = [𝑎 0 ]
0 𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃
2

g11= a2, g12 = 0, g21= 0, g22 = a2

23 combinations are present

The symbols are [11,1] , [11,2] , [12,1] , [12,2] , [21,1] , [21,2] , [22,1] , [22,2]

Non- zero symbols are

1 𝜕𝑔𝑖𝑘 𝜕𝑔𝑗𝑘 𝜕𝑔𝑖𝑗
[𝑖𝑗, 𝑘] = [ + − ]
2 𝜕𝑥 𝑗 𝜕𝑥 𝑖 𝜕𝑥 𝑘

x1 = θ, x2 = ϕ
1 𝜕𝑔11 𝜕𝑔11 𝜕𝑔11
[11,1] = [ + − ]
2 𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝜃

1 𝜕𝑎2
= =0
2 𝜕𝜃

1 𝜕𝑔11 𝜕𝑔21 𝜕𝑔12

[12,1] = [ + − ]
2 𝜕∅ 𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝜃

1 𝑎2
= =0
2 𝜕∅

1 𝜕𝑔12 𝜕𝑔12 𝑔11

[11,2] = [ + − ]
2 𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝜃 𝜕∅

1 −𝜕𝑎2
= − =0
2 𝜕∅

1 𝜕𝑔12 𝜕𝑔22 𝜕𝑔12

[12,2] = [ + − ]
2 𝜕∅ 𝜕𝜃 𝜕∅

1 𝜕
= (𝑎2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃) = 𝑎2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
2 𝜕𝜃

[21, 2] = a2sinθcosθ

[21, 1] = 0
1 𝜕𝑔21 𝜕𝑔21 𝜕𝑔22
[22,1] = [ + − ]
2 𝜕𝜙 𝜕𝜙 𝜕𝜃
 1 𝜕
= ×− 𝑎2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃
2 𝜕𝜃

= - a2sinθcosθ
1 𝜕𝑔22 𝜕𝑔22 𝜕𝑔22
[22,2] = [ + − ]
2 𝜕𝜙 𝜕𝜙 𝜕∅

1 𝜕𝑔22
=
2 𝜕∅

1 𝜕
= 𝑎2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 = 0
2 𝜕∅

Non- zero Christoffel symbols are [12, 2], [21, 2] and [22, 1]

Christoffel symbols of second kind are

1
Г11 , Г112 , Г12
2
, Г121 , Г221 , Г11
2
, Г122 , Г222
1
Г11 = 𝑔1𝑖 [11, 𝑖]

= g11 [11, 1] + g12 [11, 2]

=0
1
Г12 = 𝑔1𝑖 [12, 𝑖]

= g11 [12, 1] + g12 [12, 2]

1
= ×0+0=0
𝑎2

Г121 = 𝑔1𝑖 [21, 𝑖]

= g11 [21, 1] +g12 [21, 2]

=0

Г122 = 𝑔1𝑖 [22, 𝑖]

= g11 [22, 1] + g12 [22, 2]

1
= × −𝑎2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 cos 𝜃 = - sinθ cosθ
𝑎2
Г222 = 𝑔2𝑖 [22, 𝑖]

= g21 [22, 1] + g22 [22, 2]

1
=0+ ×0=0
𝑎2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃

2
Г11 = 𝑔21 [11, 𝑖]

= g21 [11, 1] + g22 [11, 2]

=0+0=0
2
Г12 = 𝑔2𝑖 [12, 𝑖]

= g21 [12, 1] + g22 [12, 2]

1
=0+ 𝑎2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑡𝜃
𝑎2

Г221 = 𝑔2𝑖 [21, 𝑖]

= g21 [21, 1] + g22 [21, 2]

1
=0+ 𝑎2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑡𝜃
𝑎2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃

Qn) Find [1 2, 3] and Г𝟏𝟐𝟑 in a general spherical polar co-ordinate system

1 ⟶ r, 2 ⟶ θ, 3 ⟶ ϕ

g11=1, g22 = r2, g33 = r2sin2θ

1 𝜕𝑔13 𝜕𝑔23 𝜕𝑔12
[1,2,3] = [ + − ]
2 𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝑟 𝜕∅

=0

Г123 = 𝑔1𝑖 [2 3, 𝑖]

= g11 [2 3, 1] + g12 [2 3, 2] + g13 [2 3, 3]

1 𝜕𝑔21 𝜕𝑔31 𝜕𝑔23
[2 3,1] = [ + − ]=0
2 𝜕∅ 𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝑟

1 𝜕𝑔22 𝜕𝑔32 𝜕𝑔23

[2 3,2] = [ + − ]=0
2 𝜕∅ 𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝑟
 1 𝜕𝑔23 𝜕𝑔33 𝜕𝑔23
[2 3,3] = [ + − ]
2 𝜕∅ 𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝑟

1
= . 𝑟 2 2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 ⟶ 𝑔13 = 0
2

Г123 = 0

Qn) Show that Christoffel symbols are not tensors .How does Christoffel
symbols of the first and the second kinds transform under co-ordinate
transformation?

Consider the first metric tensor gij. It is the second order co-variant tensor.

Its transformation eqn is

𝑖 𝑗
𝑔̅𝛼𝛽 = 𝑥,𝛼 𝑥,𝛽 𝑔𝑖𝑗 ⟶ (1)

Differentiating with respect to 𝑥̅ 𝛾 ,we get

𝑖 𝑖 𝑗 𝑖 𝑗 𝑗
𝑔̅𝛼𝛽,𝛾 = [𝑥,𝛼𝛾 𝑥,𝛽 + 𝑥,𝛼 𝑥,𝛽𝛾 ] 𝑔𝑖𝑗 +𝑥,𝛼 𝑥,𝛽 𝑔𝑖𝑗,𝛾

𝑖 𝑖 𝑗 𝑖 𝑗 𝑗
= [𝑥,2𝛾 𝑥,𝛽 + 𝑥,𝛼 𝑥,𝛽𝛾 ] 𝑔𝑖𝑗 + 𝑥,𝛼 𝑥,𝛽 𝑥,𝛾𝑘 𝑔𝑖𝑗,𝑘 ⟶ (2)

𝜕 𝜕𝑥 𝑘
[Since 𝑔𝑖𝑗,𝛾 = 𝑔𝑖𝑗 = 𝑥,𝛾𝑘 𝑔𝑖𝑗,𝑘 ]
𝜕𝑥 𝑘 𝜕𝑥̅ 𝑘

Similarly by cyclic permutation of the three indices α, β and γ

𝑖 𝑖 𝑗 𝑖 𝑗 𝑗
𝑔̅𝛽𝛾,𝛼 = [𝑥,𝛽𝛼 𝑥,𝛾 + 𝑥,𝛽 𝑥,𝛾𝛼 ]𝑔𝑖𝑗 +𝑥,𝛽 𝑥,𝛾 𝑥𝛼𝑘 𝑔𝑖𝑗,𝛾 𝑘 ⟶ (3)

𝑖 𝑗 𝑗 𝑗
𝑔̅𝛾𝛼,𝛽 = [𝑥,𝛾𝛽 𝑥,𝛼 + 𝑥,𝛾𝑖 𝑥,𝛼𝛽 ] 𝑔𝑖𝑗 + 𝑥,𝛾𝑖 𝑥,𝛼 𝑥𝛽𝑘 𝑔𝑖𝑗,𝛾 𝑘 ⟶ (4)

1
̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
[𝛼𝛽, 𝛾 ] = [𝑔̅𝛼𝛾,𝛽 + 𝑔̅𝛽𝛾,𝛼 − 𝑔̅𝛼𝛽,𝛾 ]
2
1
= [(4) + (3) − (2)]
2

Since gij is a symmetric tensor .the indices i and j could be interchanged in the
coefficient of gij on the RHS of eqn (2).In the last term on RHS we perform the
index changes i ⟶ j⟶ k⟶ i.
 1
[ ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝛼𝛽, 𝛾 ] = [𝑔̅𝛽𝛾,𝛼 + 𝑔̅𝛼𝛾,𝛽 − 𝑔̅𝛼𝛽,𝛾 ]
2

𝑖 𝑗 𝑖 1 𝑗
= 𝑥,𝛼𝛽 𝑥,𝛾 𝑔𝑖𝑗 + 𝑥,𝛼 𝑥𝛽 𝑥𝛾𝑘 [𝑔𝑘𝑖,𝑗 + 𝑔𝑗𝑘,𝑖 − 𝑔𝑖𝑗,𝑘 ]
2

𝑖 𝑗 𝑖 𝑗
= 𝑥,𝛼𝛽 𝑥,𝛾 𝑔𝑖𝑗 + 𝑥,𝛼 𝑥𝛽 𝑥𝛾𝑘 [𝑖𝑗, 𝑘] ⟶ (5)

This is the law of transformation of the christoffel symbols of the first kind from
𝑖
one co-ordinate system to another. The 𝑥,𝛼𝛽 term makes the expression non
tensorial. Hence christoffel symbol is not a tensor.

Transformation of the Christoffel symbol of the second kind can be obtained by

taking inner product of equation (5) with 𝑔̅ 𝛾𝜌 which gives

̅𝜌𝛼𝛽 = 𝑔̅ 𝛾𝜌 [𝛼𝛽,
Г ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝛾]
𝑖 𝑗 𝑗
= 𝑥,𝛼𝛽 𝑥,𝛾 𝑔̅ 𝛾𝜌 𝑔𝑖𝑗 + 𝑥,𝛼
𝑖
𝑥𝛽 𝑥𝛾𝑘 𝑔̅ 𝛾𝜌

𝑖 𝑗 𝛾 𝜌 𝑗 𝛾
= 𝑥,𝛼𝛽 𝑥,𝛾 𝑥̅,𝑘 𝑥̅𝑙 𝑔𝑘𝑙 𝑔𝑖𝑗 + 𝑥,𝛼
𝑖
𝑥𝛽 𝑥𝛾𝑘 𝑥̅,𝑘 𝑔𝑘𝑙 [𝑖𝑗, 𝑘]
𝑗 𝜌 𝑗 𝜌
𝑖
= 𝑥,𝛼𝛽 𝛿𝑘 ̅𝑥,𝑙 𝑔𝑘𝑙 𝑔𝑖𝑗 + 𝑥,𝛼
𝑖
𝑥,𝛽 𝑥̅𝑙 Г𝑙𝑖𝑗

𝑖 𝜌 𝑗 𝜌
= 𝑥,𝛼𝛽 𝑥̅,𝑙 𝛿𝑖𝑙 + 𝑥,𝛼
𝑖
𝑥,𝑙 Г𝑖𝑗
𝑥,𝛽 ̅̅̅
𝜌 𝑗 𝜌
𝑖
= 𝑥,𝛼𝛽 𝑖
𝑥̅,𝑖 + 𝑥,𝛼 𝑥𝛽 ̅𝑥𝑙 Г𝑙𝑖𝑗

This gives the law of transformation of the christoffel symbols of the second kind.
Due to the presence of the first term in R.H.S, this is not a tensor.
𝝏
Qn) Show that г𝒊𝒊𝒋 = (𝐥𝐧 √𝒈), 𝒋 = (𝒍𝒏√𝒈)
𝝏𝒙𝒋

g = | gij |

R.H.S = (ln √𝑔), 𝑗

𝜕
=
𝜕𝑥 𝑗
(ln √𝑔)

1 1 𝜕𝑔
=
√𝑔 2√𝑔 𝜕𝑥 𝑗
 1 𝜕𝑔
=
2𝑔 𝜕𝑥 𝑗

= gik Gik
𝜕𝑔
= 𝐺 𝑖𝑘
𝜕𝑔𝑖𝑘

𝜕𝑔 𝜕𝑔 𝜕𝑔𝑖𝑘
=
𝜕𝑥 𝑗 𝜕𝑔𝑖𝑘 𝜕𝑥 𝑗

𝜕𝑔𝑖𝑘
= 𝐺 𝑖𝑘
𝜕𝑥 𝑗

𝜕𝑔
= 𝑔𝑔𝑖𝑘 [𝑔𝑖𝑘 , 𝑗]
𝜕𝑥 𝑗

= 𝑔 𝑔𝑖𝑘 [[𝑖 𝑗, 𝑘] + [𝑘 𝑗 , 𝑖]]

= 𝑔 [𝑔𝑖𝑘 [𝑖 𝑗 , 𝑘] + 𝑔𝑖𝑘 [𝑘 𝑗 , 𝑖]]

= 𝑔[Г𝑖𝑖𝑗 + Г𝑘𝑘𝑗 ]

Since i and k are dummy indices

𝜕𝑔
= 2𝑔Г𝑖𝑖𝑗
𝜕𝑥 𝑗

1 𝜕𝑔
Г𝑖𝑖𝑗 = = (ln √𝑔)
2𝑔 𝜕𝑥 𝑗 ,𝑗

Covariant derivative

Consider the transformation relation covariant vector

𝜕𝑥 𝑖
𝐴̅𝛼 = 𝑖
𝐴𝑖 = 𝑥,𝛼 𝐴𝑖 ⟶ (1)
𝜕𝑥̅ 𝛼

Its co-ordinate derivative is given by

𝐴̅𝛼,𝛽 = 𝑥𝛼𝛽
𝑖 𝑖
𝐴𝑖 + 𝑥,𝛼 𝐴𝑖,𝛽 ⟶ (2)
𝑗
𝐴̅𝛼,𝛽 = 𝑥𝛼𝛽
𝑖 𝑖
𝐴𝑖 + 𝑥,𝛼 𝑥,𝛽 𝐴𝑖,𝑗 ⟶ (3)
𝑖
To evaluate 𝑥,𝛼𝛽 consider the transformation of Christoffel symbol of second kind
 𝜌 𝜌 𝑗 𝜌
̅ 𝑖
Г𝛼𝛽 = 𝑥,𝛼𝛽 𝑖
𝑥̅𝑖 + 𝑥,𝛼 𝑥,𝛽 𝑥̅,𝑙 Г𝑙𝑖𝑗
𝑘
Taking inner product with 𝑥,𝜌

𝑘̅ 𝜌 𝑘 𝑖 𝜌 𝑘 𝑖 𝑗
𝑥,𝜌 Г𝛼𝛽 = 𝑥,𝜌 𝑥,𝛼𝛽 𝑥̅𝑖 + 𝑥,𝜌 𝑥,𝛼 𝑥,𝛽
𝑗
𝑘
= 𝑥,𝛼𝛽 𝑖
𝑥,𝛼 𝑥𝛽 𝛿,𝑙𝑘 Г𝑙,𝑖𝑗
𝑗
𝑘
= 𝑥,𝛼𝛽 𝑖
𝑥,𝛼 𝑥𝛽 Г𝑘,𝑖𝑗

𝑘 ̅𝜌 𝑗
𝑘
𝑥,𝛼𝛽 = 𝑥,𝜌 𝑖
Г𝛼𝛽 − 𝑥,𝛼 𝑥,𝛽 Г𝑘,𝑖𝑗 ⟶ (4)

Substituting equation (4) in equation (3)

̅𝜌𝛼𝛽 𝐴𝑖 − 𝑥,𝛼
𝐴̅𝛼,𝛽 = 𝑥𝜌𝑖 Г 𝑖 𝑗 𝑖 𝑗
𝑥,𝛽 𝐴𝑘 Г𝑘𝑖𝑗 + 𝑥,𝛼 𝑥,𝛽 𝐴𝑖,𝑗
𝜌 𝑗
𝐴̅𝛼,𝛽 − 𝐴𝜌̅ Г = 𝑥,𝛼
𝑖
𝑥,𝛽 [𝐴𝑖,𝑗 − 𝐴𝑘 Г𝑘𝑖𝑗 ]
𝛼𝛽

𝐴𝑗 − 𝐴𝑘 Г𝑘𝑖𝑗 Transforms like a tensor. It is called the jth covariant derivative of Ai

and is denoted as Ai; j

𝐴𝑖;𝑗 = 𝐴𝑖,𝑗 − 𝐴𝑘 Г𝑘𝑖𝑗

For a contra variant vector Ai , if the same steps are followed

𝛼 𝑗 𝑖
𝐴𝛼̅,𝛽 + 𝐴̅𝜌 Г
̅𝛽𝜌 = 𝑥̅,𝑖𝛼 𝑥,𝛽 [𝐴𝑖,𝑗 + 𝐴𝑘 Г𝑗𝑘 ]

𝑖
𝐴𝑖; 𝑗 = 𝐴𝑖,𝑗 + 𝐴𝑘 Г𝑗𝑘

𝐴𝑖𝑗 ;𝑘 = 𝐴𝑖𝑗,𝑘 − 𝐴𝑙𝑗 Г𝑙𝑖𝑘 − 𝐴𝑖𝑙 Г𝑗𝑘

𝑙

𝑖𝑗 𝑖𝑗 𝑗
𝐴 ;𝑘 = 𝐴,𝑘 + 𝐴𝑙𝑗 Г𝑖𝑙𝑘 + 𝐴𝑖𝑙 Г𝑙𝑘
𝑖
𝐴𝑗,𝑘 𝑖
= 𝐴𝑗,𝑘 + 𝐴𝑗𝑙 Г𝑖𝑙𝑘 − 𝐴𝑖𝑙 Г𝑗𝑘
𝑙
Qn) Show that the covariant derivative of the

a) metric tensor
b) Kronecker delta are identically zero
𝑙
1) 𝑔𝑖𝑗,𝑘 = 𝑔𝑖𝑗,𝑘 − 𝑔𝑖𝑙 Г𝑗𝑘 − 𝑔𝑙𝑗 Г𝑙𝑖𝑘

= 𝑔𝑖𝑗,𝑘 − [𝑗𝑘, 𝑖] − [𝑖𝑘, 𝑗]

= [ik, j] + [jk , i] - [ik ,j] - [jk, i] = 0

𝑖 𝑖 𝑖 𝑙
2) 𝛿𝑗,𝑘 = 𝛿𝑗,𝑘 + 𝛿𝑗𝑙 Г𝑗𝑘 − 𝛿𝑙𝑖 Г𝑗𝑘

𝛿𝑗𝑖 is independent of co-ordinate system

𝑖
𝛿𝑗,𝑘 =0

𝛿𝑗𝑙 Г𝑖𝑙𝑘 − 𝛿𝑙𝑖 Г𝑗𝑘

𝑙 𝑖
= Г𝑗𝑘 𝑖
− Г𝑗𝑘 =0
𝑖𝑗 𝑖𝑗
3) 𝑔,𝑘 = 𝑔,𝑘 + 𝑔𝑖𝑙 Г𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑘 + 𝑔𝑙𝑗 Г𝑖𝑙
𝑖𝑗 𝑗
But 𝑔,𝑘 = −𝑔𝑙𝑖 Г𝑖𝑙𝑘 − 𝑔𝑖𝑙 Г𝑙𝑘

Hence RHS = 0

Riemann Christoffel curvature tensor

A surface is said to be flat if the Riemann Christoffel curvature tensor identically

vanish at any point in the space irrespective of the co-ordinate system chosen.

Let Ai be a covariant vector, its covariant derivative is a tensor of rank 2 and is

given by

𝐴𝑖;𝑗 = 𝐴𝑖,𝑗 − 𝐴𝑙 Г𝑙𝑖𝑗 ⟶ (1)

Taking the kth co-variant derivative of eqn (1)

Ai: jk = (Ai;j);k

= (𝐴𝑖;𝑗 ), 𝑘 − 𝐴ℎ;𝑗 Гℎ𝑖𝑘 − 𝐴𝑖,ℎ Г𝑗𝑘

ℎ
 𝜕
=
𝜕𝑥 𝑘
(𝐴𝑖,𝑗 ) − Гℎ𝑖𝑘 𝐴ℎ,𝑗 − Г𝑗𝑘
ℎ
𝐴𝑖,ℎ

𝜕
=
𝜕𝑥 𝑘
[𝐴𝑖,𝑗 − 𝐴𝑙 Г𝑙𝑖𝑗 ] − Гℎ𝑖𝑘 [𝐴ℎ,𝑗 − 𝐴𝑙 Г𝑙ℎ𝑗 ] − Г𝑗𝑘
ℎ
[𝐴𝑖,ℎ − 𝐴𝑙 Г𝑙𝑖ℎ ]

= 𝐴𝑖,𝑗𝑘 − 𝐴𝑙 Г𝑙𝑖𝑗,𝑘 − 𝐴𝑙,𝑘 Г𝑙𝑖𝑗 − Гℎ𝑖𝑘 𝐴ℎ,𝑗 + Гℎ𝑖𝑘 𝐴𝑙 Г𝑙ℎ𝑗 − Г𝑗𝑘

ℎ ℎ
𝐴𝑖,ℎ + Г𝑗𝑘 𝐴𝑙 Г𝑙𝑖ℎ ⟶ (2)

Co-variant derivative is not in general commute

𝐴𝑖 ;𝑗𝑘 ≠ 𝐴𝑖,𝑘𝑗

𝐴𝑖 ;𝑘𝑗 = 𝐴𝑖,𝑘𝑗 − 𝐴𝑙 Г𝑙𝑖𝑘,𝑗 − 𝐴𝑙,𝑗 Г𝑙𝑖𝑘 − Гℎ𝑖𝑗 𝐴ℎ,𝑘 + Гℎ𝑖𝑗 𝐴𝑙 Г𝑙ℎ − Гℎ𝑘𝑗 𝐴𝑖,ℎ − Гℎ𝑘𝑗 𝐴𝑙 Г𝑙𝑖ℎ

⟶ (3)

equation (3) — equation (2) gives

𝐴𝑖;𝑘𝑗 − 𝐴𝑖;𝑗𝑘 = −𝐴𝑙 Г𝑙𝑖𝑘,𝑗 + Гℎ𝑖𝑗 𝐴𝑙 Г𝑙ℎ𝑘 + 𝐴𝑙 Г𝑙𝑖𝑗,𝑘 − Гℎ𝑖𝑘 𝐴𝑙 Г𝑙ℎ

= [Г𝑙𝑖𝑗,𝑘 − Г𝑙𝑖𝑘,𝑗 + Гℎ𝑖𝑗 Г𝑙ℎ𝑘 − Гℎ𝑖𝑘 Г𝑙ℎ𝑗 ]𝐴𝑙

𝑙
= 𝑅𝑖.𝑗𝑘 𝐴𝑙
𝑙
𝐴𝑖,𝑗𝑘 − 𝐴𝑖;𝑘𝑗 = −𝑅𝑖,𝑗𝑘 𝐴𝑙 ,
𝑙
Where 𝑅𝑖,𝑗𝑘 = [Г𝑙𝑖𝑗,𝑘 − Г𝑙𝑖𝑘,𝑗 + Гℎ𝑖𝑗 Г𝑙ℎ𝑘 − Гℎ𝑖𝑘 Г𝑙ℎ𝑗 ] ⟶ (4)
𝑙
𝑅𝑖.𝑗𝑘 is called Riemann Christoffel curvature tensor. It is a mixed tensor of rank
four having one contra variant rank and three covariant rank.
𝑙
𝑅𝑖.𝑗𝑘 can be contracted in three ways

1. Let l = i
𝑙 𝑖
𝑅𝑖.𝑗𝑘 ⟶ 𝑅𝑖.𝑗𝑘
𝑙
𝑅𝑖.𝑗𝑘 = Г𝑙𝑖𝑗,𝑘 − Г𝑙𝑖𝑘,𝑗 + Гℎ𝑖𝑗 Г𝑙ℎ𝑘 − Гℎ𝑖𝑘
𝑖
𝑅𝑖.𝑗𝑘 = Г𝑖𝑖𝑗,𝑘 − Г𝑖𝑖𝑘,𝑗 + Гℎ𝑖𝑗 Г𝑖ℎ𝑘 − Гℎ𝑖𝑘 Г𝑖ℎ𝑗

But Г𝑖𝑖𝑗,𝑘 = (ln √𝑔), 𝑗, 𝑘

Since ‘i’ and ‘h’ are dummy indices, their location can be interchanged

Г𝑖𝑖𝑗 = (ln √𝑔), 𝑗

𝜕2 𝜕2 𝜕
𝑖
𝑅𝑖.𝑗𝑘 =
𝜕𝑥 𝑘 𝜕𝑥 𝑖
(ln √𝑔) − 𝜕𝑥 𝑗 𝜕𝑥 𝑘 (ln √𝑔) + Гℎ𝑖𝑗 Г𝑖ℎ𝑘 − Г𝑖ℎ𝑘 Г𝑖𝑖𝑗

=0

2. Let l = j
𝑙 𝑗
𝑅𝑖.𝑗𝑘 = 𝑅𝑖.𝑗𝑘
𝑗 𝑗 𝑗 𝑗
= Г𝑖𝑗,𝑘 − Г𝑖𝑘,𝑗 + Гℎ𝑖𝑗 Гℎ𝑘 − Гℎ𝑖𝑘 Гℎ𝑗
𝑗
𝑅𝑖.𝑗𝑘 = 𝑅𝑖𝑘 is called Ricci tensor

3. If we take l = k we get another Ricci tensor.