Waves and Oscillations

Course Code – PHY 230

Class: Bachelor of Science in Physics
Semester: 3rd -SP22, Secession (A)

Week: 11th (13-17) Nov

Lecture: 1st
Instructor: Dr. Muhammad Ajmal khan
Email: ajmalkhan@cuilahore.edu.pk

Department of Physics
COMSATS University Islamabad (CUI),
Lahore Campus
 Normal modes of
continuous systems
: Fourier method
The new point of view can be called the “Continuous approximation”.
If a system consists of a very large number (which we shall loosely call infinity)
of particles and if these particles are packed within a limited region of space,
the average distance between neighboring particles becomes very small
(tending to zero).
As an approximation, we may imagine the number of particles as becoming
infinity and inter-particles separation tending to zero. We assume that the
system, then, behaves as if it were continuous.
This assumption implies that the motion of near neighbors is very nearly the
same. We can divide the system into infinitesimally small cubes or elements and
describe the motion of the element; ignoring the details of motion of the
individual particles in a given element.
This is called the “Continuous approximation”. When this description is used to
replace the description using the displacements of individual particles we say
that we are dealing with “Waves”.
In others-words, waves will automatically emerge from our analysis of a
continuous system. However, waves will be separately deal with in the nest
future study.
We shall now use this description to study for normal modes and general
motion of a few continuous systems.
 Transverse vibration of a string 𝑇 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃 2 𝑇
𝜃2
Consider a uniform string stretched with 𝐵
′ 𝑇𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝜃2
a tension and lying along the x-axis in the 𝑇𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝜃1 ′
𝜃1 𝐴
equilibrium position.
𝑇 𝑇 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃 1
The string is divided into a large number 𝑦 (𝑥 , 𝑡)
of infinitesimally small elements each of
length . Each element is characterized by
its . 𝑇 𝐴 𝐵 𝑇
The figure shows one such element of 𝑥1 ∆𝑥
𝑥2
the string.
Figure: is an infinitesimal element of the string in
In the equilibrium state, the forces acting equilibrium position along is the displaced
on element are equal and opposite position of the element.
The element is displaced along the to the new position . The element is no
longer exactly straight; it has a slightly curvature and the tension is tangential to
the curve at .
If the displacement is small, the tension remains unchanged when the string is
deformed.
Let be the transverse displacement of the element located at at time . When
the string is released, the displacement of the element will change with time.
Thus the displacement is a function of two variables and . For an extremely
small element the net forces on the element along and directions are

and are the directions of tangents to the strings at the ends of the element, at
the with
We are assuming that the transverse displacement is very small, so that and are
small angles.
We may, therefore, make the following approximations
,
The transverse component of the tension on the element is, therefore given by

Using the Taylor’s series, we have

We assume that is small so that the terms of order of and higher power may be
neglected.
So , eq 6.2 may be write as

𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓
𝑓 ( 𝑥 2) − 𝑓 ( 𝑥 1 ) = ( ∆ 𝑥 )
𝜕𝑥
|𝑥= 𝑥 1 𝑓 ( 𝑥 2) − 𝑓 ( 𝑥 1 ) =∆ 𝑥
𝜕𝑥
|𝑥=𝑥 1

𝑓 ( 𝑥 2) − 𝑓 ( 𝑥 1 ) =∆ 𝑥 ( )
𝜕 𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑥 𝜕 𝑥
𝑓 ( 𝑥 2) − 𝑓 ( 𝑥 1 ) =∆ 𝑥
𝜕2 𝑦
𝜕𝑥 2

Where we have dropped the subscript because, having ignored the higher order
derivatives in eq 6.2., it dose not matter now where in the interval we evaluate
the because now the displacement is a function of two variables and .
In a complete form we would write eq 6.3 as

2
𝜕 𝑦 ( 𝑥,𝑡)
𝑓 ( 𝑥 2) − 𝑓 ( 𝑥 1 ) =∆ 𝑥 2
6.3
𝜕𝑥
𝑆𝑜 , 𝑒𝑞 6.1𝑐𝑎𝑛 𝑤𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑎𝑠 𝐹 𝑦 =𝑇 { 𝑓 ( 𝑥 2) − 𝑓 ( 𝑥 1 ) }

2
𝜕 𝑦 (𝑥 , 𝑡)
𝐹 𝑦 =𝑇 { 𝑓 ( 𝑥 2 ) − 𝑓 ( 𝑥1 ) }=𝑇 . ∆ 𝑥 2
6.4
𝜕𝑥
The equation of motion of the element is obtained from Newton’s second law
Force = mass acceleration
Let be the linear density (mass per unit length) of the string.
Mass of the element of length
Acceleration of the element =
So, Force = F = mass acceleration =
For the dynamic equilibrium , this force(F) must balance the force
This gives the equation of motion of an element of the string
 𝜕2 𝑦 ( 𝑥 , 𝑡 ) 𝜕 2 𝑦 (𝑥 , 𝑡 ) 𝜕2 𝑦 ( 𝑥 , 𝑡 ) 𝜕2 𝑦 ( 𝑥 ,𝑡 )
𝑇 .∆ 𝑥 2
=𝜇 ∆ 𝒙 𝑇. =𝜇
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑡2 𝜕𝑥 2
𝜕𝑡2

𝜕2 𝑦 ( 𝑥 , 𝑡 ) 𝜕2 𝑦 ( 𝑥 ,𝑡 ) 2 2
𝜕 𝑦 ( 𝑥 ,𝑡 ) 𝑇 𝜕 𝑦 ( 𝑥 ,𝑡 )
𝑇. 2
=𝜇 = . 6.5
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑡2 𝜕𝑡 2
𝜇 𝜕𝑥 2

𝑇
√
𝑤h𝑒𝑟𝑒𝜐= h𝑎𝑠 𝑡h𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝜇
The equation 6.6 is a very famous second-order linear partial differential eq.
It is called the .
This equation relates the acceleration of a simple harmonic oscillator of a
medium to the second derivative of its displacement with respect to its position
(called the second space derivative).
We shall encounter this equation in many physical situations.
The positive constant “” (having dimensions of square of a velocity) is special to
the string.
In other physical situations, some other positive constant appears in its places in
the wave equation.
So, far we have not explicitly stated which velocity constant represents.

Further study for information read the page # 245

 We shall now obtain the normal modes of transverse vibrations of a
Normal modes uniform string fixed at a both ends and stretched with a tension

Consider a uniform string of length and linear density stretched along the x-axis
with the tension and fixed at its ends , and .
The motion of any part of the string is described by the equation

In order to find the normal modes, we assume the existence of a normal mode
at angular frequency and phase constant .
This means that every particle of the string execute the SHM of angular
frequency and phase constant .
Thus, for a normal mode
These are infinite number of equations one for each particle characterize by its
value in the range .
The variable is the displacement at time of a particle located at and is the
amplitude of its motion.
The amplitudes of all particles of the string will determine the shape or
configuration of the mode.
Differentiating twice with respect to and we have

And

Notice that, since is by definition a function by only, we can write the total
derivative instead of a partial derivative.
Putting these derivatives in eq 6.6,

= wave number
At the moment,
Equation 6.9 governs the shape of the mode. This is familiar differential equation of SHM
except that it represents oscillation in space rather than in time .
So, the general solution is

Where are undetermined constant.

The general solution for the displacement of the string, in a given mode, is obtained by using
eq 6.10 and eq 6.8

Boundary conditions
Eq 6.11 is a bit too general because the boundary conditions have not been used so far.
Our string is fixed at both ends. Suppose the string has total length and the ends of the string
are at .
Since these ends are rigidly fixed, there can be no displacement at these ends.
In other words, the boundary conditions, are
for all values of
Using the first boundary condition, namely for all “” in eq 6.11 we have
Thus, for a string at fixed at so, eq 6.11 can be written as
Electric current
The rate of flow of chareg

For a weakly damped forced (driven) oscillator, after a transitory period, the
object will oscillate with the same frequency as that of the driving force.
The plot of amplitude versus angular frequency is shown in Figure below.
If the angular frequency is increased from zero, the amplitude, will increase
until it reaches a maximum value , at this point the angular frequency of the
driving force is the same as the natural frequency of the undamped oscillator.
This phenomenon is called resonance.
𝒙 𝒐 (𝝎)

𝝎
𝒐
𝝎 𝒐 =𝝎
Figure Plot of amplitude with driving angular frequency of a weekly
damped harmonic oscillator
 Helmholtz Resonator
Examples of Resonance

Helmholtz Resonator
Helmholtz resonator is an
instrument which works on
the principle of resonance and
it is used to determine the frequency of a vibrating body.
The resonator consists of either a spherical or a cylindrical air cavity with a
small neck as shown in Figure.
The dimension of the cavity is small in comparison with the wavelength of
sound to be detected.
In case of spherical cavity, the volume of the cavity is fixed whereas the
volume is variable in case of cylindrical cavity.
The air contained at the neck of the resonator acts like a piston alternately
compressing and rarefying the air within the cavity of the resonator.
The natural frequency of vibration of
Helmholtz resonator is given as:

𝒇=
𝒗 𝑺
𝟐 𝝅 𝒍𝑽 √
= is the velocity of propagation of sound in air,
= is the length of the neck of the resonator
= is the area of cross-section of the neck
= is the volume of the resonator.
The natural frequency of the resonator can be changed by changing the
volume of the resonator.
When the sound wave of frequency resonant with the natural frequency of
the resonator is incident on it, the resonator will produce sharp response.
[which shown in above figure at which ]
The frequency of the vibrating body is then equal to the natural frequency of
the resonator.
Brass spherical Helmholtz resonator, by
Max Kohl, from around 1890-1900,
purchased by Dayton Miller. Photograph by
brian0918 Source: Physics Dept, Case
Western Reserve University. {{Cc-by-sa-
2.5}}
Desirable Resonance
Musical instruments:
The pipe of a flute has various natural frequencies (depending on which keys
are pressed), and these are the ones that survive when you blow air across the
opening.
The Ear:
The hair-like nerves in the cochlea have a range of resonant frequencies which
depend on the position in the cochlea.
Depending on which ones vibrate, a signal is (somehow) sent to the brain
telling it what the pitch is.
It is quite remarkable how this works.
Cochlea: the spiral cavity of the inner ear containing the organ of Corti, which produces nerve impulses in response to sound
vibrations.
LCR circuits: it is also an example.
Undesirable Resonance
Vehicle vibrations::
This is particularly relevant in aircraft.
Even the slightest driving force (in particular from the engine) can create
havoc if its frequency matches up with any of the resonant frequencies of the
plane.
There is no way to theoretically predict every single one of the resonant
frequencies, so the car/plane/whatever has to be tested at all frequencies by
sweeping through them and looking for large amplitudes.
Tall buildings:
A tall building has a resonant frequency of swaying/influential (or actually a
couple, depending on the direction; and there can be twisting, too).
If the effects from the wind or earthquakes happen to drive the building at
this frequency, then the sway/oscillation can become noticeable.
Space station:
In early 2009, a booster engine on the space station changed its direction at a
frequency that happened to match one of the station's resonant frequencies
(about 0.5 Hz).
The station began to oscillate back and forth, made noticeable by the fact that
free objects in the air were moving back and forth.
Left unchecked, larger and larger amplitude would of course be very bad for
the structure.
It was fortunately stopped in time.

Millennium Bridge in London: it is also example

Coupled Oscillations Introduction
In previous studies we have discussed about the free oscillations of systems
with one degree of freedom. The oscillation of such systems is characterized
by a single natural frequency.
In further preceding we have studied some details how such system responds
to an external periodic force.
In such system we assumed that the driving system remains practically
unaffected by the forced oscillation of the driven system, the former only
serving as a source of periodic force with negligible feed-back of energy from
the latter.
But we analyses the oscillations of a coupled systems in which we cannot
neglect the feed-back of energy from the driven system of driver.
Some examples of two coupled oscillating systems illustrated in Figure in next
slide.
 𝑐 − 𝑇𝑤𝑜 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝐿𝐶 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑖𝑡𝑠
𝑎− 𝑇𝑤𝑜 𝑆𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑠

𝑏 −𝑇𝑤𝑜 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑎𝑐h𝑒𝑑 𝑤𝑖𝑡h 𝑡h𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠

These systems are said to have two degree of freedom.
When the moving parts of such system oscillate in one plane, say the plane of
the paper, there are exactly two variables in terms of which the motion can be
completely specified.
 Oscillations Of Two Coupled Masses
We want to establish a mathematical expression for a motion of such
coupled masses.
For this purpose we consider a coupled masses spring system which is
shown in Figure in next slide.
Let us consider the x -axis along the length of the spring with O as the origin
(which is shown in the Figure).
Let and be the coordinates of the center of the masses and respectively.
When mass is displaced towards the right and then released, mass will also
get pulled towards the right due to the coupling spring. The coupled system
would then start oscillating. Suppose and are the instantaneous positions
of masses and respectively. Then their displacements from their respective
equilibrium positions are given by
 𝐴 ′ 𝐵
𝐾 𝐾
Mass Mass
“m” “m”
(a)
𝑋𝐴
𝑋𝐵
O

(b)
Mass Mass
“m” “m”

𝑥𝐴 𝑥1 𝑥𝐵 𝑥2
O
Then their displacements from their respective equilibrium positions are given
by

[1] [2]

1- Restoring force , 2- Coupling force

And their values are expressed in below eq [3] and [4]

′ ′
𝟏 − 𝑹𝒆𝒔𝒕𝒐𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑭𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆=− 𝑲 ( 𝒙 𝑨 − 𝑿 𝑨 ) =− 𝑲 𝒙 𝟏 [ 𝟑]
We are here assuming that the masses are moving on a frictionless surface.
By Newton's second law, equation of motion of mass “A” is thus given by
𝑭 =𝒎𝒂 [𝟓 ]
The net force due to coupled masses in which two spring constant are
involved
′
𝑭 =− 𝑲 ( 𝒙 𝑨 − 𝑿 𝑨 )+𝑲 ¿
Putting the of eq [1] and [2] in the eq [6], then we get, eq [7]
′
𝑭 =− 𝑲 ( 𝒙 𝟏 ) + 𝑲 [ ( 𝒙 𝟐 − 𝒙 𝟏 ) ][ 𝟕 ]
Due to coupled masses system having the displacement becomes “a”
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐 𝟐
𝒂= 𝒅 ( 𝒙 𝑨 − 𝑿 𝑨 )/ 𝒅 𝒕 [ 𝟖] 𝒂= 𝒅 ( 𝒙 𝟏 )/ 𝒅 𝒕 [ 𝟖]
Putting the eq [7] and eq [8] in eq [5], then we get eq [9]
𝟐
𝒅 ( 𝒙 𝟏) ′
𝒎. 𝟐
=− 𝑲 ( 𝒙 𝟏 ) + 𝑲 [ ( 𝒙 𝟐 − 𝒙 𝟏 ) ][ 𝟗]
𝒅𝒕
Dividing through by “m” and rearranging terms, we get
𝟐
𝒅 ( 𝒙 𝟏) 𝑲
′
𝑲 ,
𝟐
=−
𝒎
( 𝒙 𝟏) +
𝒎
[ ( 𝒙 𝟐 − 𝒙 𝟏) ]
𝒅𝒕
𝟐
𝒅 ( 𝒙 𝟏)
𝒅𝒕
𝟐
𝟐
=− 𝝎 ( 𝒙 𝟏 ) + 𝝎
𝒐
𝟐
𝒔 [ ( 𝒙 𝟐 − 𝒙 𝟏 )]
𝟐
𝒅 ( 𝒙 𝟏)
𝒅𝒕
𝟐
𝟐
+ 𝝎 ( 𝒙𝟏 ) − 𝝎
𝒐
𝟐
𝒔 [ ( 𝒙 𝟐 − 𝒙 𝟏 ) ] =𝟎[ 𝟏𝟎]
This is eq of motion of mass “A” due coupled mass system oscillation
Similarly, The eq of motion of mass “B” due coupled mass system oscillation
And this motion can be expressed by eq [11]
𝟐
𝒅 ( 𝒙 𝟐) 𝑲
′
𝑲
𝟐
=−
𝒎
( 𝒙 𝟐) −
𝒎
[ ( 𝒙 𝟐 − 𝒙 𝟏 )]
𝒅𝒕
𝟐
𝒅 ( 𝒙 𝟐)
𝒅𝒕
𝟐
𝟐
=− 𝝎 ( 𝒙 𝟐 ) − 𝝎
𝒐
𝟐
𝒔 [ ( 𝒙𝟐 − 𝒙 𝟏) ]
𝟐
𝒅 ( 𝒙 𝟐)
𝒅𝒕
𝟐
𝟐
+ 𝝎 ( 𝒙𝟐 ) + 𝝎
𝒐
𝟐
𝒔 [ ( 𝒙 𝟐 − 𝒙 𝟏 ) ] =𝟎 [𝟏𝟏 ]
 Let us observe the eq [10] and eq [11] for a minute and think that can they
represent the motion of simple harmonic motion?
No, we cannot, in general, identify the motion described by these equations as
simple harmonic because of the presence of the coupling term
The question now arises: How to solve these equations?
For this purpose, we solve two equations simultaneously.
Firstly, we add both Eqs. [10] and [11] and their result show in eq [12]
𝟐
𝒅 𝟐
𝟐
( 𝒙 𝟏 + 𝒙 𝟐 )+ 𝝎 𝒐 ( 𝒙 𝟏 + 𝒙 𝟐 )=𝟎[ 𝟏𝟐]
𝒅𝒕
Secondly, we subtract both Eqs. [10] and [11] and their result show in eq [13]
𝟐
𝒅 𝟐 𝟐
𝟐
( 𝒙 𝟏 − 𝒙 𝟐 )+( 𝝎 𝒐 +𝟐 𝝎 𝒔 )( 𝒙 𝟏 − 𝒙 𝟐)=𝟎[ 𝟏𝟑]
𝒅𝒕
By looking at Eqs. [12] and [13] you will recognize that these are standard
equations for SHM.
This suggests that if we introduce two new variables defined as

[14] [15]
The motion of a coupled system can be described in terms of two uncoupled
and independent equations and shown by eq [16] and [17]
𝟐 𝟐
𝒅 𝟐 𝒅 𝟐 𝟐
𝟐
( 𝝃 𝟏 )+𝝎 𝒐 ( 𝝃 𝟏)=𝟎 [𝟏𝟔 ] 𝟐
( 𝝃 𝟐 )+( 𝝎 𝒐 +𝟐 𝝎 𝒔 )( 𝝃 𝟐 )=𝟎 [𝟏𝟕]
𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕
 𝟐
𝒅
𝟐
𝒅 𝟐 𝟐
( 𝝃 𝟏 )+𝝎 𝟐
𝒐 ( 𝝃 𝟏 )=𝟎 [𝟏𝟔 ] 𝟐
( 𝝃 𝟐 )+( 𝝎 𝒐 +𝟐 𝝎 𝒔 )( 𝝃 𝟐 )=𝟎 [𝟏𝟕]
𝒅𝒕
𝟐
𝒅𝒕
,

The modified form of the eq [16] and eq[17] is described by eq [18] and [19]
𝟐 𝟐
𝒅 𝟐 𝒅 𝟐
𝟐
( 𝝃 𝟏 )+𝝎 𝟏 ( 𝝃 𝟏)=𝟎[ 𝟏𝟖 ] 𝟐
( 𝝃 𝟐 )+𝝎 𝟐 ( 𝝃 𝟐)=𝟎[𝟏𝟗 ]
𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕
We therefore find that new co-ordinates and have decoupled Eqs, [12] and [13]
into two independent equations which describe simple harmonic motions of
frequenciesand and>. The new coordinates are referred to as normal
coordinates and simple harmonic motion associated with each coordinate is
called a normal mode. Each normal mode has its own characteristic frequency
called the normal mode frequency.
• Normal Coordinates and Normal Modes
• Modulation of Coupled Oscillations
• Problem
 Normal Coordinates and Normal Modes
The normal coordinates and are not a measure of displacement like ordinary co-
ordinates and .
Yet they specify the configuration of a coupled system at any instant
of time.
But we know that the displacement of mass having SHM

𝒅𝟐
𝟐
𝟐 𝒅 𝟐
𝟐
( 𝝃 𝟏 )+𝝎 𝟏 ( 𝝃 𝟏 )=𝟎[ 𝟏𝟖 ] 𝟐
( 𝝃 𝟐 )+𝝎 𝟐 ( 𝝃 𝟐 )=𝟎[𝟏𝟗 ]
𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕
The general solution of eq [18] and [19] can be write according to SHM of mass

Where and are the amplitudes of normal modes and, and are their initial
phases.
In the previous lecture {coupled mass spring system}, we put

𝝃 𝟏=𝒙 𝟏+ 𝒙 𝟐 [ 𝟑] 𝝃 𝟐=𝒙 𝟏 − 𝒙 𝟐 [ 𝟒]
On adding the eq [3] and [4], we get the valve of

𝒙 𝟏 (𝒕 )=( 𝝃 𝟏 (𝒕 )+ 𝝃 𝟐( 𝒕 ))/ 𝟐 [𝟓]

we can write the displacement of mass as
if we put the values of eq [1] and eq [2] in eq [5], then we get
𝟏
𝒙 𝟏 ( 𝒕 ) = [ 𝒂𝟏 𝒄𝒐𝒔 ( 𝝎 𝟏 𝒕 + 𝝓𝟏 ) + 𝒂𝟐 𝒄𝒐𝒔 ( 𝝎 𝟐 𝒕 + 𝝓𝟐 ) ]
𝟐
𝟏
𝒙 𝟏 ( 𝒕 ) = [ 𝒂𝟏 𝒄𝒐𝒔 ( 𝝎 𝟏 𝒕 + 𝝓𝟏 ) + 𝒂𝟐 𝒄𝒐𝒔 ( 𝝎 𝟐 𝒕 + 𝝓𝟐 ) ] [ 𝟔]
𝟐
On subtracting the eq [3] and [4], we get the valve of

𝒙 𝟐 (𝒕 )=( 𝝃 𝟏 ( 𝒕 ) − 𝝃 𝟐 (𝒕 ))/ 𝟐[ 𝟕]
we can write the displacement of mass as
if we put the values of eq [1] and eq [2] in eq [7], then we get

𝟏
𝒙 𝟐 ( 𝒕 ) = [ 𝒂𝟏 𝒄𝒐𝒔 ( 𝝎 𝟏 𝒕 + 𝝓𝟏 ) − 𝒂𝟐 𝒄𝒐𝒔 ( 𝝎 𝟐 𝒕 + 𝝓𝟐 ) ] [𝟖 ]
𝟐
The constants , , , are fixed by the initial conditions.
Once we know these, we can completely determine the motion of the
coupled masses.
 𝟏
𝒙 𝟏 ( 𝒕 ) = [ 𝒂𝟏 𝒄𝒐𝒔 ( 𝝎 𝟏 𝒕 + 𝝓𝟏 ) + 𝒂𝟐 𝒄𝒐𝒔 ( 𝝎 𝟐 𝒕 + 𝝓𝟐 ) ] [ 𝟔]
𝟐
𝟏
𝒙 𝟐 ( 𝒕 ) = [ 𝒂𝟏 𝒄𝒐𝒔 ( 𝝎 𝟏 𝒕 + 𝝓𝟏 ) − 𝒂𝟐 𝒄𝒐𝒔 ( 𝝎 𝟐 𝒕 + 𝝓𝟐 ) ] [𝟖 ]
𝟐
Now we want to calculate the eq [6] and [8] by using the initial conditions
which can be describe as below
 𝟏
𝒙 𝟏 ( 𝒕 ) = [ 𝒂𝟏 𝒄𝒐𝒔 ( 𝝎 𝟏 𝒕 + 𝝓𝟏 ) + 𝒂𝟐 𝒄𝒐𝒔 ( 𝝎 𝟐 𝒕 + 𝝓𝟐 ) ] [ 𝟔]
𝟐
𝟏
𝒙 𝟐 ( 𝒕 ) = [ 𝒂𝟏 𝒄𝒐𝒔 ( 𝝎 𝟏 𝒕 + 𝝓𝟏 ) − 𝒂𝟐 𝒄𝒐𝒔 ( 𝝎 𝟐 𝒕 + 𝝓𝟐 ) ] [𝟖 ]
𝟐
We want to solve eq [6] and [8] by using the initial conditions which describe
in set “A”
 𝟏
𝒙 𝟏 ( 𝟎 ) = [ 𝒂𝟏 𝒄𝒐𝒔 ( 𝝓𝟏 ) + 𝒂𝟐 𝒄𝒐𝒔 ( 𝝓𝟐 ) ] [𝟔 ]
𝟐
𝟏
𝒙 𝟐 ( 𝟎 ) = [ 𝒂𝟏 𝒄𝒐𝒔 ( 𝝓𝟏 ) − 𝒂𝟐 𝒄𝒐𝒔 ( 𝝓 𝟐 ) ] [𝟖]
𝟐
𝟏
𝒂= [ 𝒂𝟏 𝒄𝒐𝒔 ( 𝝓 𝟏 ) + 𝒂𝟐 𝒄𝒐𝒔 ( 𝝓 𝟐 ) ] 𝟐 𝒂= [ 𝒂 𝟏 𝒄𝒐𝒔 ( 𝝓 𝟏) +𝒂 𝟐 𝒄𝒐𝒔 ( 𝝓 𝟐 ) ]
𝟐
𝟏
𝒂= [ 𝒂𝟏 𝒄𝒐𝒔 ( 𝝓 𝟏 ) − 𝒂 𝟐 𝒄𝒐𝒔 ( 𝝓 𝟐) ] 𝟐 𝒂= [ 𝒂 𝟏 𝒄𝒐𝒔 ( 𝝓 𝟏) − 𝒂 𝟐 𝒄𝒐𝒔 ( 𝝓𝟐 ) ]
𝟐
 But we know that

𝒅 𝒙𝟏 𝟏
= [ − 𝒂 𝟏 𝝎𝟏 𝒔𝒊𝒏 ( 𝝎 𝟏 𝒕 + 𝝓 𝟏) − 𝒂 𝟐 𝝎 𝟐 𝒔𝒊𝒏 ( 𝝎 𝟐 𝒕 + 𝝓 𝟐) ]
𝒅𝒕 𝟐
𝒅 𝒙𝟏 𝟏
=− [ 𝒂 𝟏 𝝎𝟏 𝒔𝒊𝒏 ( 𝝎 𝟏 𝒕 + 𝝓 𝟏) +𝒂 𝟐 𝝎 𝟐 𝒔𝒊𝒏 ( 𝝎 𝟐 𝒕 + 𝝓 𝟐 ) ] [ 𝟗]
𝒅𝒕 𝟐
𝒅 𝒙𝟐 𝟏
= [ − 𝒂 𝟏 𝝎𝟏 𝒔𝒊𝒏 ( 𝝎 𝟏 𝒕 + 𝝓 𝟏) +𝒂 𝟐 𝝎 𝟐 𝒔𝒊𝒏 ( 𝝎 𝟐 𝒕 + 𝝓 𝟐 ) ] [𝟏𝟎]
𝒅𝒕 𝟐
Using the initial conditions then eq [6], [8], [9] and [10] becomes
 It means that

𝟏
𝒙 𝟏 ( 𝟎 ) = [ 𝒂𝟏 𝒄𝒐𝒔 ( 𝝎 𝟏 ×𝟎+ 𝝓 𝟏) +𝒂 𝟐 𝒄𝒐𝒔 ( 𝝎 𝟐 × 𝟎+ 𝝓𝟐 ) ] [𝟔 ]
𝟐

𝟏
𝒙 𝟏 ( 𝟎 ) = [ 𝒂𝟏 𝒄𝒐𝒔 ( 𝝓𝟏 ) + 𝒂𝟐 𝒄𝒐𝒔 ( 𝝓𝟐 ) ]
𝟐

𝟏
𝒂= [ 𝒂𝟏 𝒄𝒐𝒔 ( 𝝓 𝟏 ) + 𝒂𝟐 𝒄𝒐𝒔 ( 𝝓 𝟐 ) ]
𝟐

11
 It means that

𝟏
𝒙 𝟐 ( 𝟎 ) = [ 𝒂𝟏 𝒄𝒐𝒔 ( 𝝎 𝟏 . 𝟎+ 𝝓𝟏 ) − 𝒂𝟐 𝒄𝒐𝒔 ( 𝝎 𝟐 .𝟎+ 𝝓 𝟐 ) ] [𝟖]
𝟐
𝟏
𝒙 𝟐 ( 𝟎 ) = [ 𝒂𝟏 𝒄𝒐𝒔 ( 𝝓𝟏 ) − 𝒂𝟐 𝒄𝒐𝒔 ( 𝝓 𝟐 ) ]
𝟐
𝟏
𝒂= [ 𝒂𝟏 𝒄𝒐𝒔 ( 𝝓 𝟏 ) − 𝒂 𝟐 𝒄𝒐𝒔 ( 𝝓 𝟐) ]
𝟐
12
 It means that

𝒅 𝒙𝟏 𝟏
=− [ 𝒂 𝟏 𝝎𝟏 𝒔𝒊𝒏 ( 𝝎 𝟏 𝒕 + 𝝓 𝟏) +𝒂 𝟐 𝝎 𝟐 𝒔𝒊𝒏 ( 𝝎 𝟐 𝒕 + 𝝓 𝟐 ) ] [ 𝟗]
𝒅𝒕 𝟐
𝟏
𝟎=− [ 𝒂 𝟏 𝝎 𝟏 𝒔𝒊𝒏 ( 𝝎 𝟏 . 𝟎+ 𝝓𝟏 ) + 𝒂 𝟐 𝝎 𝟐 𝒔𝒊𝒏 ( 𝝎𝟐 . 𝟎+ 𝝓𝟐 ) ]
𝟐
𝟎=[ 𝒂𝟏 𝝎 𝟏 𝒔𝒊𝒏 ( 𝝓𝟏 ) + 𝒂𝟐 𝝎 𝟐 𝒔𝒊𝒏 ( 𝝓𝟐 ) ]

13
 It means that

𝒅 𝒙𝟐 𝟏
= [ − 𝒂 𝟏 𝝎𝟏 𝒔𝒊𝒏 ( 𝝎 𝟏 𝒕 + 𝝓 𝟏) +𝒂 𝟐 𝝎 𝟐 𝒔𝒊𝒏 ( 𝝎 𝟐 𝒕 + 𝝓 𝟐 ) ] [𝟏𝟎]
𝒅𝒕 𝟐
𝟏
𝟎= [ − 𝒂 𝟏 𝝎 𝟏 𝒔𝒊𝒏 ( 𝝎 𝟏 . 𝟎+ 𝝓𝟏 ) + 𝒂 𝟐 𝝎 𝟐 𝒔𝒊𝒏 ( 𝝎𝟐 . 𝟎+ 𝝓𝟐 ) ]
𝟐
𝟎=[ − 𝒂 𝟏 𝝎 𝟏 𝒔𝒊𝒏 ( 𝝓𝟏 ) + 𝒂 𝟐 𝝎 𝟐 𝒔𝒊𝒏 ( 𝝓𝟐 ) ]

𝟎=− 𝒂𝟏 𝝎 𝟏 𝒔𝒊𝒏 ( 𝝓𝟏 ) + 𝒂𝟐 𝝎 𝟐 𝒔𝒊𝒏 ( 𝝓𝟐 )

14
 11 12

13

14

On adding eq 11 and 12 we get [15] 15

On subtracting eq 11 and 12 we get [16] 16

On adding eq 13 and 14 we get [17] 17

On subtracting eq 13 and 14 we get [18] 18

The , , , are constants.
If then from eq [15] and [16] 𝟐 𝒂=𝒂𝟏 𝟎= 𝒂𝟐
Putting these values in eq [6] and [8],so 𝟐 𝒂=𝒂𝟏 𝟎= 𝒂𝟐

𝟏
𝒙 𝟏 ( 𝒕 ) = [ 𝟐 𝒂 𝒄𝒐𝒔 ( 𝝎 𝟏 𝒕 + 𝝓𝟏 ) + 𝟎 𝒄𝒐𝒔 ( 𝝎 𝟐 𝒕 + 𝝓𝟐 ) ] [𝟔 ]
𝟐
𝟏
𝒙 𝟐 ( 𝒕 ) = [ 𝟐 𝒂 𝒄𝒐𝒔 ( 𝝎 𝟏 𝒕 + 𝝓𝟏 ) −𝟎 𝒄𝒐𝒔 ( 𝝎 𝟐 𝒕 +𝝓 𝟐 ) ] [ 𝟖]
𝟐
𝟏
𝒙 𝟏 ( 𝒕 ) = [ 𝟐 𝒂 𝒄𝒐𝒔 ( 𝝎 𝟏 𝒕 + 𝝓𝟏 ) ] 19
𝟐
𝟏
𝒙 𝟐 ( 𝒕 ) = [ 𝟐 𝒂 𝒄𝒐𝒔 ( 𝝎 𝟏 𝒕 + 𝝓𝟏 ) ] 20
𝟐
We know that and describe the eq[1] and eq[2]

Putting the values of and in eq [1] and eq [2],

And we get the results of ,
Which are describe in eq [21] and [22]
The result of eq [19] and [20],

19 20
These results describe that when both masses are initially given the same
displacement to the right and then released, their displacements are equal,
i.e. or , at all times.
Then we conclude that this type of motion can be described by this eq.
𝟐
𝒅 𝟐 And the normal mode frequency is the same as
( 𝝃 𝟏 )+𝝎 𝒐 ( 𝝃 𝟏)=𝟎
𝒅𝒕 𝟐
that of the uncoupled masses.
This means that coupling has no influence and both masses oscillate in phase.
In this mode of vibration, the coupling spring is neither stretched nor
compressed (and is as good as not being there), as shown in Figure in next
slide.
Normal modes
(a) When two coupled masses are given equal displacement in the same direction,
(b) When two coupled masses are pulled together equally.
When two coupled masses are initially pulled, equally towards each other
and then released, the displacements are equal but out of phase by.
i.e or , This is shown in above figure in part (b)

The normal mode frequency will be higher than that of the uncoupled masses
.

This means that the coupling spring is either compressed or stretched and we
say that coupling is effective.
We thus conclude that normal coordinates allow us to write the equation of
motion of a coupled system into a set of linear differential equations with
constant coefficients.
Each equation contains only one dependent variable.
Moreover, the motion of a coupled system may be regarded as a superposition
of its possible normal modes.
 Modulation of Coupled Oscillations
In the above discussion we assumed that the two coupled masses are pulled
equally in the same direction or in opposite directions.
What will happen if only one of them is pulled and then released?
To understand this we have to solve Eqs. [6] and [8].
𝟏
𝒙 𝟏 ( 𝒕 ) = [ 𝒂𝟏 𝒄𝒐𝒔 ( 𝝎 𝟏 𝒕 + 𝝓𝟏 ) + 𝒂𝟐 𝒄𝒐𝒔 ( 𝝎 𝟐 𝒕 + 𝝓𝟐 ) ] [ 𝟔]
𝟐
𝟏
𝒙 𝟐 ( 𝒕 ) = [ 𝒂𝟏 𝒄𝒐𝒔 ( 𝝎 𝟏 𝒕 + 𝝓𝟏 ) − 𝒂𝟐 𝒄𝒐𝒔 ( 𝝎 𝟐 𝒕 + 𝝓𝟐 ) ] [𝟖 ]
𝟐
Suppose the initial
condition is as 1
follows:
 2 3

4 5

Then Eqs. [4] and [5] represent modulated oscillations respectively defined by
 6 7

8 9

The displacement-time graphs for the two masses are shown in Figure
We observe at t = 0, the amplitude of A is maximum while that of the mass at B
is zero. With time, the amplitude of A decreases and becomes zero at , while
that of B becomes a maximum.
After, at , this trend is reversed for the succeeding quarter of the period.
This process will repeat itself indefinitely provided damping is not
present.
problem
An object of mass m is suspended to a rigid support with
the help of a spring of force constant K. It vibrates with a
frequency 2 Hz (Figure-a). Next two identical objects A and
B, each of mass m, are joined together by a spring of force
constant K'. Then these are connected to rigid supports S1
and S2 by two identical springs, each of force constant K
(Figure-b). Now, if A is clamped, B vibrates with a frequency
2.5 Hz.
Calculate the frequencies of the two modes of vibration.
Solution
𝑊𝑒 𝑘𝑛𝑜𝑤 𝑡h𝑎𝑡 𝑡h𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦

√
1 𝐾 𝐾
√
𝜔𝑜
𝜈𝑜 = 𝐵𝑢𝑡 𝜔𝑜= 𝜈𝑜 = 2 𝜋 𝜈𝑜 =𝜔 𝑜 2 2
𝜔 𝑜= 4 𝜋 ¿
2𝜋
2𝜋 𝑚 𝑚
𝐵𝑢𝑡 𝜈𝑜 =2 𝐻𝑧 2
𝑠𝑜 , 𝜔 =4 𝜋 ¿
𝑜
2 2
𝜔 = 16 𝜋
𝑜
2
2

1
• Energy of Two Coupled Masses
Energy of Two Coupled Masses
If the coupling between two masses is weak, will be only slightly
different from
So that [modulated average frequency] will be very small.
Consequently “” and “” will take quite some time to show an
observable change.
That is, “” and “” will be practically constant over a cycle of angular
frequency .
So the below described equation [1] and [2] can be characterized regards as
Simple harmonic motion.

1 𝟐
Let us now calculate the energies of masses “A” and “B” using these equations.
The total energy of an undamped oscillator, which executing SHM is given by
1 2 2
𝐸= 𝑚 𝑎 𝑜 𝜔𝑜 𝑖𝑠 𝑡h𝑒 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑛 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑠𝑐𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟
2
𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝐸 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐸 2 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑡h𝑒 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡h𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠𝑜𝑓 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵
𝑻𝒉𝒆𝒊𝒓 𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆𝒔 𝒂𝒓𝒆 𝒆𝒙𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒅 𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒒 [ 𝟑 ] 𝒂𝒏𝒅 [ 𝟒 ] 𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒂𝒃𝒐𝒗𝒆 𝒆𝒒
1 2 2
𝐸1 = 𝑚 𝜔 𝑎𝑣 𝑎 𝑚𝑜𝑑 ( t ) [3 ] 2 2 2
𝐸1 =2 𝑚 𝑎 𝜔 𝑎𝑣 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝑚𝑜𝑑 ( t ) [ 3]
2
1 2 2
2 2 2
𝐸 2=2 𝑚 𝑎 𝜔 𝑎𝑣 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜔 𝑚𝑜𝑑 ( t ) [ 4 ]
𝐸 2= 𝑚 𝜔 𝑎𝑣 𝑏𝑚𝑜𝑑 ( t ) [ 4]
2
The total energy of two masses coupled through a spring which is given by
𝐸=𝐸1 + 𝐸 2=¿

+
+

+
2 2
𝐸 =2 𝑚 𝑎 𝜔𝑎𝑣 × (1)
2 2
𝐸 =2 𝑚 𝑎 𝜔𝑎𝑣 [ 5]

which remains constant with time.

Using Eq. (5), we can rewrite Eqs. (3) and (4) as in Eqs [6] and [7]
𝐸
𝐸1 = [ 1+ 𝐶𝑜𝑠 ( 𝜔2 −𝜔 1 ) 𝑡 ] [6 ]
2
𝐸
𝐸 2= [1 − 𝐶𝑜𝑠 ( 𝜔2 −𝜔 1 ) 𝑡 ][ 7 ]
2

These equations show that at , .

That is, to begin with, mass at A possesses all the energy.
As time passes, energy of mass at A starts decreasing.
But mass at B begins to gain energy such that the total energy of
the system remains constant.
When , the two masses share energy equally.
When , i-e,
These equations show that at , which means that the mass B
possesses all the energy.
As time passes, the energy exchange process continues.
That is, the total energy flows back and forth twice between two
masses in time T, given by

𝑇 =2 𝜋 /( 𝜔2 − 𝜔1)