Lecture 3: Introduction to Quantum Mechanics (Wave Mechanics)

Sears & Zemansky’s University Physics, 14th edition, by Hugh D. Young and Roger A. Freedman, Chapters 40 & 41
Modern Physics, 2nd edition, by Randy Harris, Chapters 4, 5, 6 & 7

1
The “familiar” classical world

Consider a classical particle of mass 𝑚 moving only along the 𝑥-axis, in the presence of a
(time-independent) potential energy function 𝑉 = 𝑉 𝑥 . The state of the particle at any
time 𝑡 is completely specified by its position 𝑥 = 𝑥 𝑡 and velocity 𝑥ሶ = 𝑥ሶ 𝑡 or linear
momentum 𝑝 = 𝑝 𝑡 = 𝑚𝑥ሶ 𝑡 . The time-evolution of 𝑥 𝑡 is governed by Newton’s 2nd
law (1687):
𝑑2 𝑑𝑉
𝑚 2𝑥 𝑡 = − 𝑥 𝑡 , 𝑜𝑟 𝑚𝑥ሷ 𝑡 = −𝑉 ′ 𝑥 𝑡 .
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑥
For example, a freely falling particle, 𝑉 = 𝑚𝑔𝑥 and
1 2
𝑥ሷ = −𝑔 ⇒ 𝑥 = 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑥0 + 𝑣0 𝑡 − 𝑔𝑡 , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑥0 = 𝑥 0 , 𝑣0 = 𝑥ሶ 0 .
2
Clearly,
𝑥ሶ = 𝑥ሶ 𝑡 = 𝑣0 − 𝑔𝑡, 𝑥ሷ = −𝑔.

2
 The “familiar” classical world (cont.)

Another example, a simple harmonic oscillator, 𝑉 = 𝑚𝜔2 𝑥 2 Τ2 and

2
𝑣0
𝑚𝑥 ሷ = −𝑚𝜔 𝑥 ⇒ 𝑥 = 𝑥 𝑡 = sin 𝜔𝑡 + 𝑥0 cos 𝜔𝑡 , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑥0 = 𝑥 0 , 𝑣0 = 𝑥ሶ 0 .
𝜔
Clearly, again
𝑥ሶ = 𝑥ሶ 𝑡 = 𝑣0 cos 𝜔𝑡 − 𝜔𝑥0 sin 𝜔𝑡 , 𝑥ሷ = 𝑥ሷ 𝑡 = −𝜔𝑣0 sin 𝜔𝑡 − 𝜔2 𝑥0 cos 𝜔𝑡 = −𝜔2 𝑥 𝑡 .

Remarks.

o A solution to the equation, 𝑥 = 𝑥 𝑡 , is unique up to specification of where the particle is

at time 𝑡 = 0, i.e., 𝑥 0 = 𝑥0 , and the velocity of the particle at time 𝑡 = 0, i.e., 𝑥ሶ 0 =
𝑣0 .

o The solutions correspond to what we observe in our “familiar” classical world.

3
Wave function, what is waving ????

How to describe a particle in a quantum world? We have learned in this class about the
wave particle duality. In the case of EM radiation, wave are oscillating electric and magnetic
fields
Reminder: Photon wave equation:

𝐸 = 𝐴 sin 𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡 = 𝐴 sin[(𝑝𝑥 𝑥 − 𝐸𝑡)/ℏ].

But what is waving for a particle? To describe the state of the particle in quantum
mechanics we need to introduce a wave function.

𝜓 = 𝜓 𝑥, 𝑡

The state of the particle in quantum mechanics is completely described by its wave
function.
4
Reminder: Complex numbers

Complex number can be expressed in the form

𝑎 + 𝑏𝑖
where
𝑖 2 = −1
is an imaginary number (no real numbers can satisfy this
equation) and 𝑎 and 𝑏 are two real numbers.

Complex conjugate of z = 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑖 is given by z ∗ = 𝑎 − 𝑏𝑖

Real part Re 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑖 = 𝑎
Imaginary part: Im 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑖 = 𝑏

Euler formula
𝑒 𝑖𝑥 = cos 𝑥 + 𝑖 sin 𝑥
5
Wave functions and position probability distributions

Suppose the wave function of a quantum particle is given by 𝜓 = 𝜓 𝑥, 𝑡 .

In general, 𝜓 is a complex-valued function. If 𝜓 𝑥, 𝑡 = 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑡 + 𝑖𝑔 𝑥, 𝑡 , where 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑡

and 𝑔 𝑥, 𝑡 are both real-valued functions, then the complex conjugate of 𝜓 𝑥, 𝑡 is

𝜓 ∗ 𝑥, 𝑡 = 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑡 − 𝑖𝑔 𝑥, 𝑡 .

The square of the absolute value of the wave function 𝜓 𝑥, 𝑡 ,

2
𝜓 𝑥, 𝑡 = 𝜓 ∗ 𝑥, 𝑡 𝜓 𝑥, 𝑡 = 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑡 − 𝑖𝑔 𝑥, 𝑡 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑡 + 𝑖𝑔 𝑥, 𝑡
= 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑡 2 + 𝑖𝑓 𝑥, 𝑡 𝑔 𝑥, 𝑡 − 𝑖𝑔 𝑥, 𝑡 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑡 − 𝑖 2 𝑔 𝑥, 𝑡 2

= 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑡 2 + 𝑔 𝑥, 𝑡 2 ≥ 0.

Clearly, 𝜓 𝑥, 𝑡 2 = 0 if and only if 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑡 = 𝑔 𝑥, 𝑡 = 0 or 𝜓 𝑥, 𝑡 = 0.

6
Wave functions and position probability distributions (cont.)

o The quantity 𝜓 𝑥, 𝑡 2 𝑑𝑥 is the

probability of finding the particle
between position 𝑥 − 𝑑𝑥Τ2 and position
𝑥 + 𝑑𝑥Τ2 at time 𝑡.
o The particle is most likely to be found in
regions where 𝜓 𝑥, 𝑡 2 is large.
o The probability that the particle is
somewhere along the 𝑥-axis is exactly 1.
So,
∞
න 𝜓 𝑥, 𝑡 2 𝑑𝑥 = 1.
−∞
That is, 𝜓 𝑥, 𝑡 is normalized.

7
Mathematical preliminaries

The wave function 𝜓 is a function of spatial coordinates, such as 𝑥, and time 𝑡, i.e., both 𝑥
and 𝑡 determine the value that 𝜓 takes. In Physics, we often have to deal with functions of
several variables, such as 𝜓. Consider a simple example:
𝑥2𝑦 The partial derivative of 𝑓 with respect to
𝑓 = 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 = 4 .
𝑥 +𝑦 2 𝑥, 𝜕𝑓 2𝑥𝑦 𝑥 4 + 𝑦 2 − 4𝑥 5 𝑦
= 4 2 2
.
𝜕𝑥 𝑥 +𝑦
While, that with respect to 𝑦,
𝜕𝑓 𝑥 2 𝑥 4 + 𝑦 2 − 2𝑥 2 𝑦 2
= 4 2 2
.
𝜕𝑦 𝑥 +𝑦
These tell how 𝑓 changes with respect to
changes in 𝑥 and 𝑦 respectively.

8
12 𝐴𝑢𝑔𝑢𝑠𝑡 1887 − 4 𝐽𝑎𝑛𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑦 1961 11 𝐷𝑒𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 1882 − 5 𝐽𝑎𝑛𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑦 1970

The Schrödinger equation and wave functions

𝜕 ℏ2 𝜕 2
𝑖ℏ 𝜓 𝑥, 𝑡 = − 2
𝜓 𝑥, 𝑡 + 𝑉 𝑥 𝜓 𝑥, 𝑡
𝜕𝑡 2𝑚 𝜕𝑥

Sears & Zemansky’s University Physics, 14th edition, by Hugh D. Young and Roger A. Freedman, Chapter 40, Section 1; Chapter 41, Section 1
Modern Physics, 2nd edition, by Randy Harris, Chapter 4, Sections 3, 4; Chapter 5, Sections 1, 3, 8; Chapter 7, Section 1

9
The Schrödinger equation – “Newton’s 2nd law” of the quantum world

Consider a quantum particle of mass 𝑚 moving only along the 𝑥-axis, in the presence of a
(time-independent) potential energy function 𝑉 = 𝑉 𝑥 . Now the state of the particle at
any time 𝑡 is completely specified by its wave function 𝜓 = 𝜓(𝑥, 𝑡). The time-evolution of
the 𝜓(𝑥, 𝑡) associated with the quantum particle is governed by the Schrödinger equation
(1926):
𝜕 ℏ2 𝜕 2 2
ℎ
𝑖ℏ 𝜓 𝑥, 𝑡 = − 2
𝜓 𝑥, 𝑡 + 𝑉 𝑥 𝜓 𝑥, 𝑡 , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑖 = −1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ℏ = .
𝜕𝑡 2𝑚 𝜕𝑥 2𝜋
Remarks.
o Mathematically, the Schrödinger equation is a partial differential equation, 1st order
in time 𝑡 but 2nd order in coordinate 𝑥.
o A solution to the equation, 𝜓 = 𝜓 𝑥, 𝑡 , is unique up to specification of the wave function
at time 𝑡 = 0, i.e., 𝜓 𝑥, 0 = 𝜓0 𝑥 .
o Predictions made with this equation agree with experimental results, i.e., the equation
works! This is the reason we know this equation is correct. 10
The Schrödinger equation – “Newton’s 2nd law” of the quantum world (cont.)

For example, a freely falling quantum particle, 𝑉 = 𝑚𝑔𝑥 and

𝜕 ℏ2 𝜕 2
𝑖ℏ 𝜓 𝑥, 𝑡 = − 2
𝜓 𝑥, 𝑡 + 𝑚𝑔𝑥𝜓 𝑥, 𝑡 .
𝜕𝑡 2𝑚 𝜕𝑥

Another example, a quantum harmonic oscillator, 𝑉 = 𝑚𝜔2 𝑥 2 Τ2 and

𝜕 ℏ2 𝜕 2 1 2 𝑥 2 𝜓 𝑥, 𝑡 .
𝑖ℏ 𝜓 𝑥, 𝑡 = − 𝜓 𝑥, 𝑡 + 𝑚𝜔
𝜕𝑡 2𝑚 𝜕𝑥 2 2

11
Expectation values and uncertainties

Suppose repeated experiments are carried out to determine a quantity 𝑄, where 𝑄 might
represent position 𝑥, linear momentum 𝑝, or any other measureable quantity. The value 𝑄1
is obtained 𝑛1 times, the value 𝑄2 is obtained 𝑛2 times, and so on. The expectation value
(or mean) of 𝑄,
1
𝑄 = ෍ 𝑛𝑖 𝑄𝑖 , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑁 = ෍ 𝑛𝑖 .
𝑁
𝑖 𝑖
Clearly,
𝑛𝑖 1
𝑝𝑖 = ≥ 0, ෍ 𝑝𝑖 = ෍ 𝑛𝑖 = 1, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑄 = ෍ 𝑝𝑖 𝑄𝑖 .
𝑁 𝑁
𝑖 𝑖 𝑖
And,

𝑄− 𝑄 = ෍ 𝑝𝑖 𝑄𝑖 − 𝑄 = ෍ 𝑝𝑖 𝑄𝑖 − 𝑄 ෍ 𝑝𝑖 = 𝑄 − 𝑄 = 0.
𝑖 𝑖 𝑖 12
Expectation values and uncertainties (cont.)

But,

𝑄− 𝑄 2
= ෍ 𝑝𝑖 𝑄𝑖 − 𝑄 2
= ෍ 𝑝𝑖 𝑄𝑖2 − 2 𝑄 𝑄𝑖 + 𝑄 2

𝑖 𝑖

= ෍ 𝑝𝑖 𝑄𝑖2 − 2 𝑄 ෍ 𝑝𝑖 𝑄𝑖 + 𝑄 2෍𝑝
𝑖 = 𝑄2 − 𝑄 2 ≥ 0.
𝑖 𝑖 𝑖
The standard deviation,
Δ𝑄 = 𝑄− 𝑄 2 ,
is zero if and only if there is only one value ever obtained, which would automatically be
𝑄 , and when values do vary, it gets larger as they become more spread out. In quantifies
the uncertainty in 𝑄 when the experiment to determine 𝑄 is repeated many times,
identically.

13
Expectation values and uncertainties (cont.)

Generalizing, the expectation value of position,

∞
𝑥 = න 𝑥 𝜓 𝑥, 𝑡 2 𝑑𝑥 .
𝜓
−∞

And, the uncertainties in position:

2
Δ𝑥 𝜓 = 𝑥2 𝜓 − 𝑥 𝜓,

where
∞
𝑥2 𝜓 = න 𝑥 2 𝜓 𝑥, 𝑡 2
𝑑𝑥
−∞

14
Stationary states

Sears & Zemansky’s University Physics, 14th edition, by Hugh D. Young and Roger A. Freedman, Chapter 40, Section 1
Modern Physics, 2nd edition, by Randy Harris, Chapter 5, Sections 2 & 9

15
Stationary-state wave functions

Consider the stationary-state wave function,

𝑖
𝜓 𝑥, 𝑡 = 𝑢 𝑥 exp − 𝐸𝑡 ,
ℏ
where 𝐸 has the dimension of energy and is to be determined. Substituting this into the
Schrödinger equation:
𝜕 ℏ2 𝜕 2
𝑖ℏ 𝜓 𝑥, 𝑡 = − 2
𝜓 𝑥, 𝑡 + 𝑉 𝑥 𝜓 𝑥, 𝑡
𝜕𝑡 2𝑚 𝜕𝑥
we have
𝑖 ℏ2 𝑑 2 𝑢 𝑥 𝑖 𝑖
𝐸𝑢 𝑥 exp − 𝐸𝑡 = − 2
exp − 𝐸𝑡 + 𝑉 𝑥 𝑢 𝑥 exp − 𝐸𝑡 .
ℏ 2𝑚 𝑑𝑥 ℏ ℏ
Or, the time-independent Schrödinger equation:
ℏ2 𝑑 2
− 2
𝑢 𝑥 + 𝑉 𝑥 𝑢 𝑥 = 𝐸𝑢 𝑥 .
2𝑚 𝑑𝑥 16
Stationary-state wave function (cont.)

For a free quantum particle, 𝑉 𝑥 = 0, this equation reduces to

ℏ2 𝑑 2 𝑑2 𝑢 2 2
2𝑚𝐸
− 2
𝑢 𝑥 = 𝐸𝑢 𝑥 , 𝑜𝑟 2
+ 𝑘 𝑢 = 0, 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑘 = 2 > 0.
2𝑚 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 ℏ
Claim:
𝑢 𝑥 = 𝐴 exp −𝑖𝑘𝑥 , 𝑜𝑟 𝑢 𝑥 = 𝐴 exp 𝑖𝑘𝑥
assuming 𝑘 > 0. Verification:
𝑑 𝑑
𝑢 𝑥 = −𝑖𝑘𝐴 exp −𝑖𝑘𝑥 , 𝑜𝑟 𝑢 𝑥 = 𝑖𝑘𝐴 exp 𝑖𝑘𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
and
𝑑2 2 𝐴 exp −𝑖𝑘𝑥 = −𝑘 2 𝑢 𝑥 ,
𝑢 𝑥 = −𝑖𝑘
𝑑𝑥 2
𝑑2 2 2
or 2
𝑢 𝑥 = 𝑖𝑘 𝐴 exp 𝑖𝑘𝑥 = −𝑘 𝑢 𝑥 .
𝑑𝑥 17
Stationary-state wave function (cont.)

It follows that
𝑖 𝑖
𝜓 𝑥, 𝑡 = 𝐴 exp − ℏ𝑘𝑥 + 𝐸𝑡 , 𝑜𝑟 𝜓 𝑥, 𝑡 = 𝐴 exp ℏ𝑘𝑥 − 𝐸𝑡
ℏ ℏ
with
ℏ2 𝑘 2
𝐸= .
2𝑚
According to de Broglie, a free quantum particle with a definite linear momentum 𝑝 has
an associated definite de Broglie wavelength
ℎ
𝜆= .
𝑝
So, 𝒘𝒂𝒗𝒆 𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓
ℎ ℎ 2𝜋 𝑝2
𝑝= = = ℏ𝑘, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐸 = .
𝜆 2𝜋 𝜆 2𝑚 18
Stationary-state wave function (cont.)

The stationary-state wave functions

𝑖 𝑖
𝜓 𝑥, 𝑡 = 𝐴 exp − 𝑝𝑥 + 𝐸𝑡 , 𝑜𝑟 𝜓 𝑥, 𝑡 = 𝐴 exp 𝑝𝑥 − 𝐸𝑡
ℏ ℏ
are associated with a free quantum particle with a definite linear momentum −𝑝 (left-
moving) or 𝑝 (right-moving) respectively, and hence a definite kinetic energy 𝐸.

Note that the stationary-state wave functions associated with a free quantum particle
cannot be normalized:
𝜓 𝑥, 𝑡 = 𝐴∗ 𝐴 = 𝐴 2
∞ ∞
and
න 𝜓 𝑥, 𝑡 2 𝑑𝑥 = 𝐴2 න 𝑑𝑥 = ∞.
−∞ −∞
The position probability distribution function does not depend on position 𝑥, which
says that we are equally likely to find the particle anywhere along the 𝑥-axis.
19
Stationary-state wave function (cont.)

Remarks.
o In general, with 𝑢 𝑥 satisfying
𝑖 ℏ2 𝑑 2
𝜓 𝑥, 𝑡 = 𝑢 𝑥 exp − 𝐸𝑡 , − 2
𝑢 𝑥 + 𝑉 𝑥 𝑢 𝑥 = 𝐸𝑢 𝑥 ,
ℏ 2𝑚 𝑑𝑥
is associated with a quantum particle with a definite (total) energy 𝐸. A quantum particle
with a definite energy 𝐸 is in a stationary state.
o The corresponding position probability distribution function,

2
𝑖 𝑖
𝜓 𝑥, 𝑡 = 𝜓∗ 𝑥, 𝑡 𝜓 𝑥, 𝑡 = 𝑢∗ 𝑥 exp 𝐸𝑡 𝑢 𝑥 exp − 𝐸𝑡 = 𝑢∗ 𝑥 𝑢 𝑥 = 𝑢 𝑥 2,
ℏ ℏ
does not depend on time, 𝑡.

o Note that a quantum particle in a stationary state does NOT mean a stationary
particle, i.e., one with zero kinetic energy.
20
Nonstationary-state wave function

It is possible for a quantum particle to be in a nonstationary state that does not have a
definite energy. The wave function for any such nonstationary state can be written as a
superposition of definite-energy stationary-state wave functions. For example,
𝑖 𝑖
𝜓 𝑥, 𝑡 = 𝐴1 𝑢1 𝑥 exp − 𝐸1 𝑡 + 𝐴2 𝑢2 𝑥 exp − 𝐸2 𝑡 ,
ℏ ℏ
where 𝐴1 and 𝐴2 are constants, which may be complex in general. In this case,
2 2 2 2 2 ∗ ∗
𝑖
𝜓 𝑥, 𝑡 = 𝐴1 𝑢1 𝑥 + 𝐴2 𝑢2 𝑥 + 𝐴1 𝐴2 𝑢1 𝑥 𝑢2 𝑥 exp 𝐸1 − 𝐸2 𝑡
ℏ
∗ ∗
𝑖
+𝐴1 𝐴2 𝑢1 𝑥 𝑢2 𝑥 exp − 𝐸1 − 𝐸2 𝑡 .
ℏ
The corresponding position probability distribution function depends on time 𝑡 in
general. Suppose 𝐴1 = 𝐴2 = 1Τ 2 and 𝑢1∗ = 𝑢1 , 𝑢2∗ = 𝑢2 , then
2
1 2
1 2
𝐸1 − 𝐸2
𝜓 𝑥, 𝑡 = 𝑢1 𝑥 + 𝑢2 𝑥 + 𝑢1 𝑥 𝑢2 𝑥 cos 𝑡 . 21
2 2 ℏ
 Midterm test: Time and Venue

Date:
Friday, March 8, 2019

Time:
1 hour: 4 pm – 5.15 pm
Please be there on time

Venue:
Multi Purpose Sport Hall (M2C)

22
Schrödinger equation in one dimension

o Particle in a box
o Potential wells
o Potential barriers and tunnelling

Sears & Zemansky’s University Physics, 14th edition, by Hugh D. Young and Roger A. Freedman, Chapter 40, Section 4
Modern Physics, 2nd edition, by Randy Harris, Chapter 6, Sections 1, 2 & 3

23
Particle in a box

Consider a particle of mass 𝑚 moving only along the 𝑥-direction, in the presence of the
potential energy function
∞ 𝑥 < 0,
𝑉 𝑥 = ቐ 0 0 < 𝑥 < 𝐿,
∞ 𝐿 < 𝑥.
In the region 0 < 𝑥 < 𝐿,

In classical physics particle bounces back

and forth between the walls of the potential
well, probability to find it is the same
everywhere
24
Particle in a box

In quantum mechanics wave function of the particle obeys Schrodinger equation

In the region 0 < 𝑥 < 𝐿, time-independent Schrodinger equation

ℏ2 𝑑 2
− 2
𝑢 𝑥 + 𝑉 𝑥 𝑢 𝑥 = 𝐸𝑢 𝑥 .
2𝑚 𝑑𝑥

Reduces to

ℏ2 𝑑 2 𝑑2 𝑢 2 2
2𝑚𝐸
− 2
𝑢 𝑥 = 𝐸𝑢 𝑥 , 𝑜𝑟 2
+ 𝑘 𝑢 = 0, 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑘 = 2 > 0.
2𝑚 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 ℏ
In the regions 𝑥 < 0 and 𝐿 < 𝑥, 𝑢 𝑥 = 0 since if the term 𝑉 𝑥 𝑢 𝑥 is to be finite, then
𝑢 𝑥 must be zero where 𝑉 𝑥 is infinite. The particle is bound and confined to 0 < 𝑥 < 𝐿.
25
Particle in a box

We found (see previous lecture) that the solutions of this equation are

𝑢 𝑥 = 𝐴1 exp 𝑖𝑘𝑥 , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑢 𝑥 = 𝐴2 exp −𝑖𝑘𝑥

Or any linear combination of these two wavefunctions

𝑢 𝑥 = 𝐴1 exp 𝑖𝑘𝑥 + 𝐴2 exp −𝑖𝑘𝑥 =

𝐴1 (cos 𝑘𝑥 + 𝑖 sin(𝑘𝑥)) + 𝐴2 (cos 𝑘𝑥 − 𝑖 sin(𝑘𝑥)) =
𝐴1 + 𝐴2 cos 𝑘𝑥 + 𝑖 𝐴1 − 𝐴2 sin 𝑘𝑥

Due boundary condition 𝑢 0 = 0 , 𝐴1 + 𝐴2 = 0

Therefore
𝑢 𝑥 = 2𝑖𝐴1 sin 𝑘𝑥 = 𝐶 sin 𝑘𝑥
26
Particle in a box

𝑢 𝑥 = 𝐶 sin 𝑘𝑥

Due to another boundary condition: 𝑢 𝐿 = 0 possible values of 𝑘 are

𝜋𝑛
𝑘𝑛 = , 𝑛 = 1,2,3 …
𝐿
Possible values of the energy are then

ℏ2 𝑘 2 𝑛 2 𝜋 2 ℏ2
𝐸𝑛 = = 2
, 𝑛 = 1,2,3, …
2𝑚 2𝑚𝐿

𝑛 is a quantum number.

Note: A particle in a potential well cannot have zero energy.

(Reminder: Heisenberg uncertainty principle) 27
Normalisation

Wavefunction should be normalised to make sure that probability to find particle

anywhere adds up to one

𝐿 𝐿 2𝐿
𝐶
න 𝑢 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 = 𝐶 2 න sin2 𝑘𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = =1
0 0 2
Therefore
2
𝐶=
𝐿
Particle in a box (cont.)

Finally: 0 𝑥 < 0,

𝑢 = 𝑢𝑛 𝑥 =
2 𝑛𝜋𝑥 ℏ2 𝑛 2 𝜋 2
sin 0 < 𝑥 < 𝐿, 𝐸 = 𝐸𝑛 = 2
, 𝑛 = 1, 2, 3, ⋯ .
𝐿 𝐿 2𝑚𝐿
0 𝐿 < 𝑥.

29
Wavefunction Probability density
Time dependent wave function

2 𝑛𝜋𝑥 𝑛 2 𝜋 2 ℏ2
Ψ𝑛 𝑥, 𝑡 = sin 𝑒 −𝑖𝐸𝑛 𝑡/ℏ , where 𝐸𝑛 =
𝐿 𝐿 2𝑚𝐿2

are solution of the time dependent Schrodinger equation with definite energy. The
probability density Ψ𝑛 𝑥, 𝑡 2 remains constant.

Any linear combination of these functions

෍ 𝑐𝑛 Ψ𝑛 𝑥, 𝑡
𝑛

is also a solution of the Schrodinger equation. However these wave functions are not
stationary, because corresponding probability distribution depends on time.
Example: Time dependent wave function
2
Example: Ψ1 𝑥, 𝑡 + Ψ2 𝑥, 𝑡 for L=1 at different times t

𝜋 2𝜋
𝑡=0 𝑡= 𝑡=
4 4

3𝜋 4𝜋 5𝜋
𝑡= 𝑡= 𝑡=
4 4 4
Potential wells

Now consider a quantum particle of mass 𝑚 moving only along the 𝑥-direction, in the
presence of the potential energy function
𝑉 >0 𝑥 < 0, 𝑉0
0
𝑉 𝑥 =ቐ 0 0 < 𝑥 < 𝐿,
𝑉0 > 0 𝐿 < 𝑥.
In the region 0 < 𝑥 < 𝐿,
ℏ2 𝑑 2
− 2
𝑢 𝑥 + 𝑉 𝑥 𝑢 𝑥 = 𝐸𝑢 𝑥 .
2𝑚 𝑑𝑥
reduces to
ℏ2 𝑑 2 𝑑2𝑢 2 2
2𝑚𝐸
− 2
𝑢 𝑥 = 𝐸𝑢 𝑥 , 𝑜𝑟 2
+ 𝑘 𝑢 = 0, 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑘 = 2 > 0.
2𝑚 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 ℏ

33
Potential wells (cont.)

In the regions 𝑥 < 0 and 𝐿 < 𝑥, we have

ℏ2 𝑑 2 𝑑2 𝑢 2 𝑢 = 0,
2𝑚 𝑉0 − 𝐸
− 𝑢 𝑥 + 𝑉0 𝑢 𝑥 = 𝐸𝑢 𝑥 , 𝑜𝑟 − 𝑙 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑙2 = > 0.
2𝑚 𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 2 ℏ 2

In general, solution of this equation when 𝑉0 − 𝐸 > 0 is

𝐶1 exp 𝑙𝑥 + 𝐶2 exp −𝑙𝑥

• Wave function is a continuous function, therefore we can connect solutions in all the
regions together if we require that 𝑢 𝑥 and 𝑑𝑢 𝑥 /𝑑𝑥 be the same on both sides of the
boundary

• To keep wave function normalised we require that 𝑢 ±∞ → 0

34
Potential wells (cont.)

Here, we focus on 𝐸 < 𝑉0 (bound state). Claim:

𝐶 exp 𝑙𝑥 𝑥 < 0, 𝑘
sin 𝜙 = ,
𝑘2 + 𝑙2 𝑘2 + 𝑙2
𝑢 = 𝑢𝑛 𝑥 = 𝐶 sin 𝑘𝑥 + 𝜙 0 < 𝑥 < 𝐿, , 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ
𝑘 𝑙
cos 𝜙 = .
±𝐶 exp 𝑙 𝐿 − 𝑥 𝐿 < 𝑥. 𝑘2 + 𝑙2
And,

2𝑘𝑙 𝑘 2𝑙
tan 𝑘𝐿 = 2 2
, 𝐶= .
𝑘 −𝑙 𝑘 2 + 𝑙2 2 + 𝑙𝐿

Last equation (in red) can be satisfied for certain values of energy 𝐸𝑛 only, which gives
the energies of the bound states.
35
Potential wells (cont.)
𝑢𝑛 𝑥 2
𝑢𝑛 𝑥

• Compared to the energy of the infinite well potential, the energy levels of the finite
potential well are lower (because wavelength of the wave function is longer).

• Probability to find particle in the classically forbidden region where 𝐸 < 𝑉0 is not zero.
36
The harmonic oscillator

Last, consider a quantum particle of mass 𝑚 moving only along the 𝑥-direction, in the
presence of the potential energy function
1
𝑉 𝑥 = 𝑚𝜔2 𝑥 2 ,
2
where 𝜔 is some positive constant. In this case,
ℏ2 𝑑 2
− 2
𝑢 𝑥 + 𝑉 𝑥 𝑢 𝑥 = 𝐸𝑢 𝑥 .
2𝑚 𝑑𝑥
becomes
𝑑2 𝑢 2𝑚𝐸 𝑚2 𝜔2 2
2
+ 2
− 2
𝑥 𝑢 = 0.
𝑑𝑥 ℏ ℏ
Or,
𝑑2𝑢 2𝐸 2
𝑚𝜔
2
+ − 𝑦 𝑢 = 0, 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑦 = 𝑥.
𝑑𝑦 ℏ𝜔 ℏ 37
The harmonic oscillator (cont.)

𝑢0 𝑥 𝑢1 𝑥

𝑉 𝑥

𝑢2 𝑥 𝑢3 𝑥

38

1
𝐸𝑛 = ℏ𝜔(𝑛 + )
2
Potential barriers and tunnelling

Consider a quantum particle of mass 𝑚 moving only along the 𝑥-direction, in the presence
of the potential energy function
𝑉0
0 𝑥 < 0,
𝑉 𝑥 = ቐ𝑉0 > 0 0 < 𝑥 < 𝐿,
0 𝐿 < 𝑥. 𝑘
In the regions 𝑥 < 0 and 𝐿 < 𝑥,
ℏ2 𝑑 2
− 2
𝑢 𝑥 + 𝑉 𝑥 𝑢 𝑥 = 𝐸𝑢 𝑥 .
2𝑚 𝑑𝑥
reduces to
ℏ2 𝑑 2 𝑑2𝑢 2 2
2𝑚𝐸
− 2
𝑢 𝑥 = 𝐸𝑢 𝑥 , 𝑜𝑟 2
+ 𝑘 𝑢 = 0, 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑘 = 2 > 0 †.
2𝑚 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 ℏ
† In this case, 𝐸 > 0. Otherwise, the equation does not yield physically acceptable
solutions.
39
Potential barriers and tunnelling (cont.)

In the region 0 < 𝑥 < 𝐿,

ℏ2 𝑑 2
− 2
𝑢 𝑥 + 𝑉 𝑥 𝑢 𝑥 = 𝐸𝑢 𝑥 .
2𝑚 𝑑𝑥
becomes
ℏ2 𝑑 2 𝑑2 𝑢 2𝑚 𝑉0 − 𝐸
− 2
𝑢 𝑥 + 𝑉0 𝑢 𝑥 = 𝐸𝑢 𝑥 , 𝑜𝑟 2 − 𝑙2 𝑢 = 0, 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑙2 = 2
> 0.
2𝑚 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 ℏ

Here, we focus on 𝐸 < 𝑉0 . :

exp 𝑖𝑘𝑥 + 𝑅 exp −𝑖𝑘𝑥 𝑥 < 0,

𝑢 = 𝑢 𝑥 = ൞ 𝐴 exp −𝑙𝑥 + 𝐵 exp 𝑙𝑥 0 < 𝑥 < 𝐿,
𝑇 exp 𝑖𝑘𝑥 𝐿<𝑥

40
Potential barriers and tunnelling (cont.)

𝑉 𝑥
𝑉0

Re 𝑢 𝑥

41
Potential barriers and tunnelling (cont.)

We know that the solution of the Schrodinger equation in the central region is proportional
to
𝐴 exp −𝑙𝑥 + 𝐵 exp 𝑙𝑥

For large L the wave function should decay exponentially in the region of 𝐸 < 𝑈0 .

𝑥
𝑢 𝑥 ∼ exp −𝑙𝑥 = exp − 2𝑚 𝑉0 − 𝐸 .
ℏ
Transmission probability is

2 2
𝐿
𝑇 ∼ 𝑢 𝐿 = exp −2 2𝑚 𝑉0 − 𝐸 .
ℏ

42
Potential barriers and tunnelling (cont.)
More detailed calculations would give the following expression for tunneling probability

2
1
𝑇 = 2
𝑉02 𝐿 𝐿
1+ exp 2𝑚 𝑉0 − 𝐸 − exp − 2𝑚 𝑉0 − 𝐸
16𝐸 𝑉0 − 𝐸 ℏ ℏ

When 𝑉0 − 𝐸 or 𝐿, or both are large, the tunnelling probability, is approximately

2
𝐸 𝐸 𝐿
𝑇 ≈ 16 1− exp −2 2𝑚 𝑉0 − 𝐸 .
𝑉0 𝑉0 ℏ

The probability decreases rapidly with increasing barrier width 𝐿. It also depends critically
on the energy difference 𝑉0 − 𝐸, which in Newtonian mechanics is the additional kinetic
energy the particle would need to be able to climb over the barrier.
43
Example: tunnelling for light

If 𝑛1 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃1 = 𝑛2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃2 can not be satisfied

for some angles 𝜃1,2 , light inside the prism
experience total internal reflection.

Light field outside the prism decays

exponentially

If the other piece of glass is places close to

the prism, light beam can tunnel through
the air gap and exit the prism
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=q7Q8l3xKyr4
Frustrated total internal reflection
44
Potential barriers and tunnelling for light

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=q7Q8l3xKyr4
45
Potential barriers and tunnelling for electrons, scanning tunnel microscope

• Electrons tunnel from the very sharp

tip of the probe to the sample.

• Electrons from the probe tunnel to the

sample, creating electric current. This
current strongly depends on the
distance between the sample and the
probe, which allows to resolve very
small features on the surface

46
 Potential barriers and tunnelling, scanning tunnel microscope images

An STM image of a single-walled carbon nanotube

STM image of gold surface

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scanning_tunneling_microscope
An STM can be used to manipulate atoms 47
Scanning tunnel microscope video

48
https://youtu.be/oSCX78-8-q0
Time-independent Schrödinger equation in three dimensions

o Particle in a three-dimensional box

Sears & Zemansky’s University Physics, 14th edition, by Hugh D. Young and Roger A. Freedman, Chapter 41, Section 2
Modern Physics, 2nd edition, by Randy Harris, Chapter 7, Section 2

49
Particle in a three-dimensional box

Consider a quantum particle of mass 𝑚 moving in three-

dimensional space, in the presence of the potential energy
function
0 0 < 𝑥 < 𝐿, 0 < 𝑦 < 𝐿, 0 < 𝑧 < 𝐿,
𝑉 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 = ቊ
∞ 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒.
Inside the three-dimensional box,
ℏ2 𝜕 2 𝜕2 𝜕2
− 2
+ 2 + 2 𝑢 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 + 𝑉 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 𝑢 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 = 𝐸𝑢 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧
2𝑚 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
reduces to 𝜕2 𝜕2 𝜕2 2𝑚𝐸
2
+ 2 + 2 𝑢 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 + 2 𝑢 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 = 0.
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 ℏ
Outside the box, 𝑢 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 = 0 since if the term 𝑉 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 𝑢 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 is to be finite, then
𝑢 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 must be zero where 𝑉 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 is infinite. The particle is bound and confined to
the box. 50
Particle in a three-dimensional box (cont.)

Claim:
3
2 2 𝑛𝑥 𝜋𝑥 𝑛𝑦 𝜋𝑦 𝑛𝑧 𝜋𝑧
𝑢 = 𝑢𝑛𝑥,𝑛𝑦 ,𝑛𝑧 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 = sin sin sin 0 < 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 < 𝐿,
𝐿 𝐿 𝐿 𝐿
0 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒
with
ℏ2 𝑛𝑥2 + 𝑛𝑦2 + 𝑛𝑧2 𝜋 2
𝐸 = 𝐸𝑛𝑥,𝑛𝑦 ,𝑛𝑧 = 2
, 𝑛𝑥 , 𝑛𝑦 , 𝑛𝑧 = 1, 2, 3, ⋯ .
2𝑚𝐿
Verification: Inside the three-dimensional box,
𝜕 2 𝑢 𝒏 𝜕 2 𝑢𝒏 𝜕 2 𝑢𝒏 𝑛𝑥 𝜋 2 𝑛𝑦 𝜋 2 𝑛𝑧 𝜋 2
2
+ 2
+ 2
=− 𝑢𝒏 − 𝑢𝒏 − 𝑢𝒏
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝐿 𝐿 𝐿
𝑛𝑥2 + 𝑛𝑦2 + 𝑛𝑧2 𝜋 2 2𝑚𝐸𝑛𝑥,𝑛𝑦 ,𝑛𝑧
=− 2
𝑢𝒏 = − 2
𝑢𝒏 .
𝐿 ℏ 51
Particle in a three-dimensional box (cont.)

Remark – degeneracy and symmetry.

ℏ2 𝑛𝑥2 + 𝑛𝑦2 + 𝑛𝑧2 𝜋 2
𝐸 = 𝐸𝑛𝑥,𝑛𝑦 ,𝑛𝑧 = 2
, 𝑛𝑥 , 𝑛𝑦 , 𝑛𝑧 = 1, 2, 3, ⋯
2𝑚𝐿
Note that most energy levels correspond to
more than one set of quantum numbers
(𝑛𝑥 , 𝑛𝑦 , 𝑛𝑧 ) and hence to more than one
quantum state 𝑢𝑛𝑥,𝑛𝑦,𝑛𝑧 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 . Having
two or more distinct quantum states with the
same energy is called degeneracy, and
states with the same energy are degenerate.

52
Particle in a three-dimensional box (cont.)

The reason the cubical box exhibits degeneracy is that it is symmetric – all sides of the box
have the same dimensions. Consider the position probability distribution functions for
the three degenerate states with 𝑛𝑥 , 𝑛𝑦 , 𝑛𝑧 = 2, 1, 1 , 1, 2, 1 , and 1, 1, 2 :
2 2 2
𝑢2,1,1 𝑢1,2,1 𝑢1,1,2

One can transform any one of these into a different one by simply rotating the cubical box
by 90° . This rotation does not change Physics and in particular, the energy – so the three
states are degenerate. 53
Particle in a three-dimensional box (cont.)

Since degeneracy is a consequence of symmetry, we can remove the degeneracy by

making the box asymmetric – by giving the three sides of the box different lengths 𝐿𝑥 , 𝐿𝑦 ,
and 𝐿𝑧 . Then,
0 < 𝑥 < 𝐿𝑥 ,
2 𝑛𝑥 𝜋𝑥 2 𝑛𝑦 𝜋𝑦 2 𝑛𝑧 𝜋𝑧
sin sin sin 0 < 𝑦 < 𝐿𝑦 ,
𝑢 = 𝑢𝑛𝑥,𝑛𝑦,𝑛𝑧 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 = 𝐿𝑥 𝐿𝑥 𝐿𝑦 𝐿𝑦 𝐿𝑧 𝐿𝑧
0 < 𝑧 < 𝐿𝑧 ,
0 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒
with
ℏ2 𝜋 2 𝑛𝑥2 𝑛𝑦2 𝑛𝑧2
𝐸 = 𝐸𝑛𝑥,𝑛𝑦 ,𝑛𝑧 = 2 + 2 + 2 , 𝑛𝑥 , 𝑛𝑦 , 𝑛𝑧 = 1, 2, 3, ⋯ .
2𝑚 𝐿𝑥 𝐿𝑦 𝐿𝑧
If 𝐿𝑥 , 𝐿𝑦 , and 𝐿𝑧 are all different, the states with 𝑛𝑥 , 𝑛𝑦 , 𝑛𝑧 = 2, 1, 1 , 1, 2, 1 , and
1, 1, 2 have different energies and hence are no longer degenerate.
54
Another example of degenerate states: photon polarisation

Wavefunction of a photon is given by:

𝐸 𝑥, 𝑡 = 𝐸0 𝑒 𝑖𝑘𝑥−𝑖𝜔𝑡

Electric field is a vector 𝐸0 and can have different orientations. For example photon
can have horizontal or vertical polarizations:

It corresponds to two different quantum states of the photon. Both states have the
same energy, therefore these states are degenerate.
55
Measurements in quantum mechanics

o Measurements and collapse of wave function

o Quantum money
o Quantum communications
o Entanglement

Sears & Zemansky’s University Physics, 14th edition, by Hugh D. Young and Roger A. Freedman, Chapter 40, 41

56
Measurements in quantum mechanics

Lets consider a particle in a box, in a stationary state with the

definite value of energy 𝐸𝑛 . Its wave function is
2 𝑛𝜋𝑥 −𝑖𝐸 𝑡/ℏ
Ψ𝑛 𝑥, 𝑡 = sin 𝑒 𝑛
𝐿 𝐿
does not have a definitive momentum.
It is a superposition of wave functions with momentum ℏ𝑘𝑛 and
𝐸𝑛
− ℏ𝑘𝑛 , where 𝑘𝑛 = 𝜋𝑛/𝐿 , and 𝜔𝑛 = .
ℏ

2 𝑒 𝑖𝑘𝑛 𝑥 − 𝑒 −𝑖𝑘𝑛 𝑥 −𝑖𝐸 𝑡/ℏ

Ψ𝑛 𝑥, 𝑡 = 𝑒 𝑛
𝐿 2𝑖
1
= (𝑒 𝑖𝑘𝑛 𝑥−𝑖𝜔𝑛 𝑡 + 𝑒 −𝑖𝑘𝑛 𝑥−𝑖𝜔𝑛 𝑡 )
𝑖 2𝐿
57
Measurement

State
1
Ψ𝑛 𝑥, 𝑡 = (𝑒 𝑖𝑘𝑛 𝑥−𝑖𝜔𝑛 𝑡 + 𝑒 −𝑖𝑘𝑛 𝑥−𝑖𝜔𝑛 𝑡 )
𝑖 2𝐿
Is a superposition of wave functions with
momentum ℏ𝑘𝑛 and −ℏ𝑘𝑛

Mean value of the momentum is zero. However if

we measure particle momentum, we will get either
ℏ𝑘𝑛 or −ℏ𝑘𝑛 , with equal probability.

What happens to the wave function after the

measurement?

58
Measurement
After the measurement the wave function changes to
one with the definite momentum, either

𝑒 𝑖𝑘𝑛 𝑥−𝑖𝜔𝑛 𝑡
If we measure momentum ℏ𝑘𝑛 , or

𝑒 −𝑖𝑘𝑛 𝑥−𝑖𝜔𝑛 𝑡
If we measure momentum −ℏ𝑘𝑛

Measurement of the physical property of the system

can change the wave function of that system.

Wavefunction collapses. If we perform second

measurement right after the first one, we get the same
result. 59
Measurement

Another example: We can prepare the particle in the infinite potential well in a state
𝑐1 Ψ1 𝑥, 𝑡 + 𝑐2 Ψ2 𝑥, 𝑡 and then measure its energy.

2 𝑛𝜋𝑥 𝑛 2 𝜋 2 ℏ2
Reminder: Ψ𝑛 𝑥, 𝑡 = sin 𝑒 −𝑖𝐸𝑛 𝑡/ℏ , where 𝐸𝑛 =
𝐿 𝐿 2𝑚𝐿2

After the measurement the wavefunction will collapse to the state of definite energy,
Ψ1 𝑥, 𝑡 or Ψ2 𝑥, 𝑡 .
Superposition, classical analogue

“superposition”

or

61
Schrodinger cat
But what causes wavefunction collapse? Is it the act
of observing the state?

• Erwin Schrodinger proposed an experiment where

the cat is in the box with a vial of poison. Poison
is broken if a radiation detector detects uranium
in a box radioactively decays.

• Until an observation is made, a quantum particle

(and a cat) must be thought to be in all its states
at once.
It was a gedanken experiment, no cats were
harmed.
• So the Schrodinger’s cat is both dead and alive
at the same time
62
Measurement in quantum mechanics: Quantum money
Easy way to get rich:

Make exact copy of all the

banknotes in your wallet.

(Warning!!! It is a crime in
Singapore* )

If this does not stop you …

people at the Monetary
Authority keep adding security
features to the banknotes to
make copying difficult.

*punished with imprisonment for a term which may extend to 20 years. Source: Singapore Penal Code, Chapter 489A 63
Measurement in quantum mechanics: Quantum money

For example, one cannot copy Singapore dollars

using most of the colour copy machines that are sold
in Singapore

Same is true for US Dollars, EUROs, etc.

Reason: Modern copy machines detect special

pattern printed on banknotes and refuse to copy it.

But what if the criminals can change the software of

the copy machine, and start copying money.

Idea: Quantum money

64
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EURion_constellation
Forensic science: Secrets of colour printers / copy machines

Every colour printer adds to

every printed / copied page
the machine identification
code.

This code is encoded in the

pattern of small yellow dots.

This patters can help law

enforcement agencies to
identify maker/model/serial
number of the printer.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machine_Identification_Code 65
Measurement in quantum mechanics: Quantum money

Idea: Each banknote has a sequence of quantum particles of

different state: (e.q. photons polarized either horizontally or
at 45 degrees)

• Bank keeps a record of serial numbers and quantum

states.
• If someone wants to make a copy, he has to measure these
quantum states.
• But he does not know whether to orient his/her polarier
horizontally, or at 45 degrees.
• If he chooses to measure polarization along the wrong
direction, the quantum state will change due to
wavefunction collapse.
66
Measurement in quantum mechanics: Quantum money

Serial number and sequence of the quantum states are kept

secret by the bank

To verify the banknote, bank can use its records, measure

along the correct direction according to its records, and
check if all the quantum states are correct

Chances that these states will be wrong are very high if

someone tried to make a copy.

Copy protection is guaranteed by the laws of physics.

67
Quantum cryptography (BB84 protocol)
Eve

Alice
Bob

Alice wants to send Bob a message, but she does not want Eve to read this message.

She can encrypt her message using the encryption key (sequence of bits) that Alice and
Bob share, but how to establish this key without meeting Bob in person?

68
Quantum cryptography (BB84 protocol)

Alice
Bob

Idea: Use the fact that measurement of the quantum state changes it to make

Alice sends Bob a long sequence of photons with polarization randomly chosen from

or
69
H or V + or -
Application of quantum mechanics: Quantum cryptography
Alice Type HV +- +- +- HV HV +- HV

state 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0

Bob Type +- +- +- HV HV +- HV HV

Measurement 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 0
outcome

• Bob measures photons and choose settings of his polarizer randomly, either [H , V]
or [+, -]

• After all the photons are sent, Alice tells Bob over the insecure channels which
photons were from [H , V] group, and which from [+, -] group. 70
Application of quantum mechanics: Quantum cryptography
Alice Type HV +- +- +- HV HV +- HV

state 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0

Bob Type +- +- +- HV HV +- HV HV

Measurem 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 0
ent
outcome

• Bob tells Alice for which photons he used the same polarization setting as Alice.

• They keep part of the data where their setting were the same and discard the rest
71
Application of quantum mechanics: Quantum cryptography

• To check if Eve was listening, they compare some of their bits over the public channel:

• If all the data agree, Eve is not listening. If substantial fraction disagrees, Eve is
trying to read the message.

• If Eve was trying to intercept the message, 50% of time she would choose wrong
polarisation setting

• Among those, 50% of time Alice and Bob would disagree. It gives 0.5 * 0.5 =25% of
errors

• Any attempt to intercept the encryption key will be detected. Security is guaranteed by
the laws of quantum mechanics
Application of quantum mechanics: Quantum cryptography

Commercial quantum key Quantum cryptography in space

distribution systems
 Midterm test

Date:
Friday, March 8, 2019

Time:
1 hour: 4 pm – 5.15 pm

Venue:
Multi Purpose Sport Hall (M2C)

Format:
• Closed book exam,
• Approx. 10 Multiple choice questions,
• Covers special relativity and quantum
physics, (does not include Schrodinger
74
equation and later topics)
Entanglement

Lets consider a state of two photons:

1
Ψ= ↑, ↑ + | →, →⟩
2
Now, if we measure the first photon and find it in V polarisation, subsequent measurement
of the second photon will also give an outcome V. Same is true for H.

Measurement of one particle affects the state of another particle. Particles are
entangled.
76
 Quantum Entanglement:
Einstein’s “Spooky action-at-a-distance”

“superposition” “entangled superposition”

or or
Entanglement
1
Ψ= ↑, ↑ + | →, →⟩
2
• Wavefunction collapse happens instantaneously. It happens even if these
particles are far away and do not interact with each other.

• Einstein’s “spooky action at a distance”

• However, no information can be communicated faster than the speed of light.

Outcome of the measurement of a single particle is random, and there is no way to
tell looking at one particle whether the other particle was measured or not.

78
Application of quantum mechanics.

• Entanglement can be used in quantum cryptography protocols.

• Entanglement is necessary for quantum computers.

• Bits in classical computer are replaced by quantum 2 level systems, qubits

• N two level quantum systems (qubits) can have 2𝑁 configurations.

• The wave function can be in any of the 2𝑁 configuration, in superposition of

all of them.

• All this configurations can be processed in parallel, and can speed up certain
classes of problems (for example factoring of large numbers, simulations of
quantum systems, etc).
Lecture on Quantum Computers, if we have time??
79