Physics part-II

Sheet-x
Special Theory of Relativity

According to theory of relativity space, time and length are not constant. These are changeable.
The special theory of relativity is based on two postulates.
1. The fundamental laws of physics will remain same form for all inertial frames of reference/system.
2. The speed of light in vacuum is independent of the relative motion of the source and observer.

Galilean Transformation
 Consider two internal frames of reference where S is at rest &𝑆 ′ is moving with velocity V along the positive direction of x-axis. When
t=0 O&𝑂′ will remain at the same place thus after time t=t, 𝑂′ will remain at a distance vt. Let (x, y, z, t) & (𝑥 ′ ,𝑦 ′ ,𝑧 ′ ,𝑡 ′ ) are the
coordinates of a point P. After time t the coordinates of P with respect to the
moving frame will be
𝑥 ′ =x-vt [Since the motion along x-axis]
𝑦 ′ =y [y and z are constant]
′
𝑧 =z
If time is independent for all frames of reference 𝑡 ′ =t.
This transformation of equations are called Galilean transformation.
For velocity transformation
𝑑𝑥′ 𝑑(𝑥 − 𝑣𝑡) 𝑑𝑥
𝑣𝑥 ′ = = = 𝑑𝑡 - v = vx –v
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑦′
𝑣𝑦 ′ = = vy
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑧′
𝑣𝑧 ′ = = vz.
𝑑𝑡
... 𝑣𝑥 ′ =vx-v, 𝑣𝑦 ′ =vy, 𝑣𝑧 ′ =vz
Which are the velocity transformations.

This transformations doesn’t obey the postulates of special theory of relativity for the laws of electricity, magnetism and for the speed of
light.
Deduce the Lorentz transformation equations

Deduction: Consider two inertial frames of reference S &𝑆 ′ where S is at rest &𝑆 ′ is moving with constant velocity V.

Here, our initial condition is when t=0 the origin of S &𝑆 ′ coincides. Let when t=𝑡 ′ =0 an event is occurred & the observers of both frames
measure the speed of light. According to 2nd postulate both will determine the same speed c. That is in S frame x=ct………. (1)
& in 𝑆 ′ frame 𝑥 ′ = c 𝑡 ′ ……………. (2)
Now we have to find out such transformations equation which is valid for both (1) & (2)
The new equation should be like that an event in S frame will corresponds to an event in S’ frame.
As for x-coordinate the classical transformations are 𝑥 ′ = x-vt & x = 𝑥 ′ +v𝑡 ′
Consider another relationship of this kind
𝑥 ′ = k(x-vt)…………(3)
& x = k (𝑥 ′ + v𝑡 ′ )……….. (4)
Where k is a function of v.
Since there is no relative speed along y & z directions.
Therefore, 𝑦 ′ = y &𝑧 ′ = z
But t &𝑡 ′ are not equal.Now putting the value of 𝑥 ′ from equation (3) to (4)

x = k{k(x-vt)+v𝑡 ′ }

or,x = k2x-k2vt+kv𝑡 ′

or, kv𝑡 ′ = x-k2x+k2vt

= (1-k²)x+k²vt
1−𝑘 2
... 𝑡 ′ = kt+( ) 𝑥………(5)
𝑘𝑣

Now putting the value of 𝑥 ′ &𝑡 ′ into (2)

1−𝑘 2
k(x-vt) = ckt+ 𝑐𝑥
𝑘𝑣

1−𝑘 2
or, x[k- c] = ckt+kvt
𝑘𝑣
𝑘𝑣
ct(𝑘+ )
... x = 𝑐
1−𝑘2
𝑘− 𝑐
𝑘𝑣

Again from equation (1) we can get, x = ct

𝑘𝑣
(𝑘+ )
𝑐
or, ct{ 1−𝑘2
} = ct
𝑘−( )𝑐
𝑘𝑣

𝑘𝑣 1−𝑘 2
or,k+ 𝑐 = k-( )𝑐
𝑘𝑣

or, k²v² = -(1-k²)c²

or, k²v²=-c²+k²c²
or, k² (c²-v²) = c²
𝑐²
or, k² = 1−𝑉2
𝑐²( 2 )
𝑐

1
or, k² = 1−𝑉2
𝑐2

1
Hence, k = 2
√1−𝑉2
𝑐

Putting the value of k in equation (3) & (5) we get

𝑥−𝑣𝑡
𝑥′= 2
√1−𝑉2
𝑐

1
1− 𝑣²
𝑡 1−
𝑡′ = 2
+ 𝑣
𝑐²
𝑥
√1−𝑉2 2
𝑐 √1−𝑉
𝑐2

𝑣2 𝑣
𝑡 1− 2 −1 𝑡− 𝑥
2
𝑐 𝑐
= 2
+ 𝑉2
𝑥= 2
√1−𝑉2 √(1− 2 )𝑣 √1−𝑉2
𝑐 𝑐 𝑐

Hence the transformation equations are

𝑉x
𝑥−𝑉𝑡 𝑡−
𝑥′= 2
, 𝑦 ′ = y, 𝑧 ′ = z, 𝑡 ′ = 𝑐²
𝑉2
√1−𝑉2 √1− 2
𝑐 𝑐

which are known as Lorentz Transformation.

𝑉x
𝑥 ′ + 𝑉𝑡 𝑡′+
′ ′ 𝑐²
The inverse Lorentz Transformation can be written as 𝑥 = 2
, y = 𝑦 ,z = 𝑧 , t =
𝑉2
√1−𝑉2 √1− 2
𝑐 𝑐
Length contraction:
The length of an object is measured to be shorten when it is moving then when it is rest .This is length contraction .The length is contracted
𝑉2
by the factor √1 − 𝑐 2

y y’

s s’

A B A B

oxo x’
x1 x2 x1‘ x2 ’

z’

Consider two inertial frames of reference S &𝑆 ′ where S is at rest &𝑆 ′ is moving with velocity V along the positive direction of x-axis.
Consider a rod is lying (at rest) along the x-axis of the moving frame. If x1 & x2 are the coordinates of the ends of the rod at rest frame

.Then for an observer situated at 0 the actual length of the rod is L0 = x2 - x1 when S is at rest . The length of the rod at the moving frame is
′ ′
L = x2 -x1
According to Lorentz transformation
′ ′
x +𝑉𝑡 x +𝑉𝑡
x2 = 2 2 ……….. (I) x1 = 1 2 ………. (II)
√1−𝑉2 √1−𝑉2
𝑐 𝑐

′ ′
x +𝑉𝑡 x +𝑉𝑡
x2 - x1 = 2 2 − 1 2
√1−𝑉2 √1−𝑉2
𝑐 𝑐

′ ′
x -x
= 2 12
√1−𝑉2
𝑐

𝐿
L0 = 2
√1−𝑉2
𝑐

𝑉2
& L=L0√1 − 𝑐 2

Here,L0> L , the moving length is smaller than the length of rod is at rest . So, for an observer situated at S frame seems the length of a rod
𝑉2
situated at moving frame smaller with a factor √1 − 𝑐 2 .
 Einstein’s Mass-energy relationship: E = mc²
Consider a particle of mass m is moving with velocity V then the momentum is mV.
From the second law of Newton
𝑑(𝑚𝑉) 𝑑𝑉 𝑑𝑚
F= =m +V ……… (I)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

Change in kinetic energy dT due to the force F extended on the particle through a distance dx.
𝑑𝑉 𝑑𝑚
dT=F.dx = (m 𝑑𝑡 + V 𝑑𝑡 )dx [using (I)]
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
=m 𝑑𝑡 dV + V dm
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑥
dT = mVdV + V²dm ………..(II)[velocity V= 𝑑𝑡 ]
𝑚0
Using mass transformation equation m= 2
√1−𝑉2
𝑐

0 𝑚 𝑐²
or, m² = 𝑐 2−𝑉²

or, m²c² - m²V² = 𝑚0 ² c²

Differentiating both sides we have,
2mdmc²+2cdcm²-2mdmV²-2VdVm²=2𝑚0 d𝑚0 c²+2cdc𝑚0 ² ………….. (III)
Here, 𝑚0 & c are constant, so , dc = 0,d𝑚0 = 0
2mdmc² = 2mdmV²+2VdVm²
or, dmc² = mVdV + V²dm …………… (IV)
From equation (II) & (IV) dT = dmc²
𝑇 𝑚
or,∫0 𝑑𝑇 = ∫𝑚 𝑑𝑚𝑐²
0
or, [𝑇]𝑇0 = c²[𝑚]𝑚
𝑚0

or, T= c2 (m-𝑚0 )
Hence kinetic energy T=mc²-𝑚0 c2
Now, total energy = Kinetic energy + Potential energy
or, E = mc²-𝑚0 c2 + 𝑚0 c2
Hence, E = mc2
Which is the required Einstein’s mass energy relationship.

Find the relationship between the total energy, rest energy and the momentum.
Solution:We know from mass transformation,
𝑚𝑜
m= 2
= m0 (1- V²/c²)-(1/2)
√1−𝑉2
𝑐

1 𝑉² 3 𝑉²
= m0 [1+2 𝑐² + 8( 𝑐² ) 2+……………….]
1
Or, mc2=m0c2+ 2m0V2+…………

From the mass energy relationship

𝑚𝑜 𝑐 2
E = mc2 = 2
(1)
√1−𝑉2
𝑐

𝑚𝑜 𝑣
And the momentum p = mv = 2
(2)
√1−𝑉2
𝑐

From equation (1) we have

 𝐸 2 𝑚𝑜 2 𝑐 2
(𝑐 ) = 𝑉2
1− 2
𝑐

𝐸 2 𝐸 2 𝑉2
or, 𝑚𝑜 2 𝑐 2 = ( 𝑐 ) -( 𝑐 ) 𝑐2
2 2
𝐸 2 𝑚𝑐 2 𝑉
= ( 𝑐 ) -( )
𝑐 𝑐2

𝐸2 𝐸2
= - 𝑚2 𝑣 2 = - 𝑝2
𝑐2 𝑐2

Hence, 𝐸 2 = 𝑚𝑜 2 𝑐 4 + 𝑝2 𝑐 2 which is the required energy, rest energy and momentum relationship.

Time dilation:
The time interval at the moving frame is larger than the time initial noted at the at the rest frame of same event. This phenomenon is called
time dilation. Consider two inertial frame of reference S &𝑆 ′ 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒S is at rest and 𝑆 ′ 𝑖𝑠 moving with Velocity V along the positive
direction of x-axis.
Consider two identical clocks at their origin O & 𝑂′ .At time t = 0 O & 𝑂′ coincide each other, consider a gun placed at the point 𝑥1 ′ in 𝑆 ′
frame and fires two shots at time 𝑡1 ′ and 𝑡2 ′ noted on the clock in 𝑆 ′ frame. Let t1 and t2 be the corresponding times noted on the clock at S
frame. The time interval between the two events (Firing of the shots) as noted on the clock in the moving frame is given by ∆𝑡 ′ = 𝑡2 ′ -
𝑡1 ′ and the time interval between the same two events noted as the clock in the stationary frame S is given by,
∆t = t2-t1
According to Lorentz Transformation equation
𝒗
(𝒕𝟏 ’+ 𝟐 𝒙𝟏 ′)
𝒄
𝑡1 = 𝟐
√𝟏−𝑽𝟐
𝒄
𝒗
(𝒕𝟐 ’+ 𝟐 𝒙𝟐 ′)
𝒄
&𝑡2 = 𝟐
√𝟏−𝑽𝟐
𝒄
 Therefore,

𝑉2
∆t = 𝑡2 − 𝑡1= (𝑡2 ′ -𝑡1 ′ )/√1 − 𝑐 2

𝑉2
𝑜𝑟, ∆t = ∆𝑡 ′ /(√1 − 𝑐 2 )

or, ∆t>∆𝑡 ′
Thus the time interval ∆𝑡′ between two events occurring at a given point in the moving frame 𝑆 ′ appears to be longer;
1
dilated by a factor 2
to the observer at the rest frame S.
√1−𝑉2
𝑐

Example: 11.2:Show that by means of Lorentz transformation equation 𝑥 ′ 2-c2𝑡 ′ 2=x2-c2t2.

Solution: According to Lorentz transformation,
𝑥−𝑉𝑡
Let, 𝑥 ′ = 2
= 𝛾(𝑥 − 𝑉𝑡)
√1−𝑉2
𝑐

𝑉𝑥
𝑡− 𝑉𝑥 1
𝑡′= 𝑐²
2
= 𝛾 (𝑡 − ) where 𝛾 = 2
𝑐²
√1−𝑉2 √1−𝑉2
𝑐 𝑐

′2 𝑉𝑥
.΄. 𝑥 – c2𝑡 ′ 2= 𝛾 2 (𝑥 − 𝑉𝑡)2 − 𝛾²𝑐²(𝑡 − 𝑐 2 )2
2𝑉𝑡𝑥 𝑉 2 𝑥 2
=𝛾 2 (𝑥 2 − 2𝑥𝑉𝑡 + 𝑉 2 𝑡 2 ) − 𝛾²𝑐²(𝑡 2 − + )
𝑐2 𝑐4

𝑉2 𝑉2
=𝛾 2 𝑥 2 (1 − 𝑐 2 ) − 𝛾 2 𝑐 2 𝑡 2 (1 − 𝑐 2 )
𝑉2
=𝛾 2 (1 − 𝑐 2 ) (𝑥 2 − 𝑐 2 𝑡 2 ) =x²-c²t² [Shown]
Example: 11.3: Show that if(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 , 𝑧1 , 𝑡1 ) & (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 , 𝑧2 , 𝑡2 ) are the coordinates of the event atS1& S2 respectively then the expression dS12=
d𝑥1 2+d𝑦1 2+d𝑧1 2-c²d𝑡1 2is invariant under Lorentz transformation.
Solution:
The Lorentz transformation is given by
𝑉𝑥2
2𝑥 +𝑉𝑡
2 𝑡2 +
𝑐²
𝑥1 = √(1−𝛽 2)
&𝑡1 =
√1−𝛽²
𝑣
Where 𝛽 = 𝑐

Differentiating,
𝑉𝑑𝑥2
𝑑𝑥2 +𝑉𝑑𝑡2 𝑑𝑡2 +
𝑐²
d𝑥1 = , d𝑦1 = d𝑦2 , d𝑧1 = d𝑧2 , & d𝑡1 =
√1−𝛽 2 √1−𝛽²

.. .dS12= d𝑥1 2+d𝑦1 2+d𝑧1 2-c²d𝑡1 2

𝛽
𝑑𝑥2 +𝑉𝑑𝑡2 𝑑𝑡2 +( )𝑑𝑥2
=( )² + 𝑑𝑦2 ² + 𝑑𝑧1 ² − 𝑐 2 [ 𝑐
]²
√1−𝛽² √1−𝛽²

1 𝑐²
= 1−𝛽² (d𝑥2 +Vd𝑡2 )2- 1−𝛽² [d𝑡2 + (𝛽/𝑐) 𝑑𝑥2 ] ² + d𝑦2 2+d𝑧2 2
1
=1−𝛽² [𝑑𝑥2 2 + 2𝑉𝑑𝑥2 𝑑𝑡2 + 𝑉 2 𝑑𝑡2 ²-c²d𝑡2 ²-c² 2 𝛽/𝑐 d𝑥2 d𝑡2 -𝛽²𝑑𝑥2 ²] +dy22+dz22
1
=1−𝛽² [d𝑥2 2 + V2d𝑡2 2-c2d𝑡2 2-𝛽²d𝑥2 2] +d𝑦2 2+d𝑧2 2

𝑉 2 −𝑐²
= d𝑥2 2+d𝑦2 2+d𝑧2 2-c²d𝑡2 2𝑉 2 −𝑐²

= dx22+dy22+dz22-c²dt22
1 1 𝑐² −𝑐²
=dS22 [...1−𝛽² = 𝑉² =𝑐 2−𝑉² = 𝑉 2 −𝑐² ] [Showed]
1−
𝑐²
Example: 4.18x10−3kg of a substance is fully converted to heat energy. Calculate the amount of heat produced.
Solution: We know, E=mc²
= 4.18×10-3× (3×108)2 J
𝐸
... Heat produced = 4.18 cal
4.18×10−3 ×(3×108 )²
= = 9×1013 calorie. (Ans)
4.18

Example: 11.4: What would be the speed of a passenger who wishes to a spaceship, whose speed with respect to the earth is .9c at a relative
speed of 0.5c?
Solution: According to conventional mechanics, the actual speed of the passenger is 0.9 c + 0.5c= 1.4c more than speed of light. But according
to the realistic mechanics the required speed of the passenger is
𝑢′ +𝑉 0.9𝑐+0.5𝑐
u= 𝑢′𝑉 = .9𝑐×0.5c V= 0.5c 0.5c 0.9c
1+ 1+
𝑐² 𝑐²

=0.9655c 𝑢′ =0.9c

The passenger must move with a speed of 0.9655c in order to have a relative speed of 0.5c with respect to the spaceship.
Example: (a)Two events occur at the same place but separated in time. S declares that the two events occur in different places.

S 𝑆′
Rest Moving
(b)𝑆 ′ observes that two events occur at the same time but are separated in space. S will than declare two events occur at different places.
In (a) let the time separation in 𝑆 ′ in 10 minutes. What is the distance separation observed by S?
In (b) let the distance separation in 𝑆 ′ is 25meter. What is the time separation observed by S?
Solution:
Take, V = 20 m/s and c = 3×108 m/s
(a) Here, 𝑡2′ − 𝑡1′ =10 min = 600s
𝑥2 -𝑥1 = ?
𝑥2′ +𝑉𝑡2 ′ 𝑥1′ +𝑉𝑡1 ′
𝑥2 = &𝑥1 =
√1−𝑉² √1−𝑉²
𝑐² 𝑐²
𝑥2′ − 𝑥1′ +𝑉(𝑡2′ −𝑡1′ )
𝑥2 -𝑥1 = [Here , 𝑥2′ = 𝑥1′ ]
√1−𝑉²
𝑐²
𝑉(𝑡2′ −𝑡1′ ) 20×600
= = 20
= 12km
√1−𝑉² √1−( )²
𝑐² 3×108

(ans)

(b) 𝑥2′ − 𝑥1′ = 25, t2-t1=?

𝑥 ′ 𝑥 ′
𝑡2′ +𝑉 2 𝑡1′ +𝑉 1
𝑐² 𝑐²
t2 = , t1 =
√1−𝑉² √1−𝑉²
𝑐² 𝑐²
𝑡2′ −𝑡1′ +𝑉(𝑥2′ −𝑥1′ )/𝑐²
t2-t1= ×
√1−𝑉²
𝑐²
𝑉(𝑥2′ −𝑥1′ ) 20×25
t2-t1= = 20
= 5.55×10-15s.
𝑉²
𝑐²√1− (3×108 )²√1−( )²
𝑐² 3×108
 Example:11.14: How fast would a rocket ship have to go relative to an observer for its length to be contracted to 99% of it’s length when
at rest?

Solution: Let, l0 = Proper length

l = 0.99 l0
𝑙 99
or, 𝑙 = 0.99 =
0 100
𝑉²
We know, l = l0√1 − 𝑐²
𝑙 99 𝑉²
or, 𝑙 = 100 = √1 − 𝑐²
0
𝑉² 99
or, 1 − 𝑐² = (100)²
𝑉² 99
or, 𝑐² = 1-(100)²
or, 𝑉 2 = 0.0199 × c²
or, V = 0.1416c = 0.1416×3×108 m/s
= 4.245×107 m/s
The rocket ship have to go with velocity 4.245×107 m/s.

Example: 11.21: A particle is moving with a speed of 0.5c. Calculate the ratio of its rest mass and the mass which in motion.
𝑚0
Solution: We know, m=
√1−𝑉²
𝑐²

𝑚0 𝑉²
or, = √1 − 𝑐²
𝑚

(0.5𝑐)²
= √1 − = 0.866 (Ans)
𝑐²