ANALYTIC METHODS FOR SOLVING THE ROOTS QUADRATIC, CUBIC AND QUARTIC

EQUATIONS

Different methods have been used to solve the roots of quadratic, cubic and quartic equation, and
these methods include: graphical, trial and error, numerical, factorization etc. Each method has
limitation and so can only be used to solve a type of root. For example, the factorization method
cannot be used to solve irrational or complex roots but only rational roots; the graphical method
cannot be used to complex roots but real roots.

Some analytical methods for solving roots of second, third and fourth degree polynomial have
limitations too but can be remodified to eliminate the shortcoming.

The Analytic methods include: Completing square, trigonometric, decomposition methods.

The Completing square method is applicable only to quadratic equations. This method gives rise
to the quadratic formular and has no limitation: it can be used to solve all types of roots. The
method is as follows

1. If 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0, first of all divide both sides through by "𝑎", therefore

𝑏 𝑐
𝑥 2 + 𝑎 𝑥 + 𝑎 = 0 . Secondly, half the coefficient of 𝑥 and add the square of half of the coefficient
𝑏2
of 𝑥 i.e. 4𝑎2 to both sides, therefore,

𝑏 𝑐 𝑏2 𝑏2 𝑏 𝑏2 𝑏 2
𝑥 2 + 2𝑎 𝑥 + 𝑎 + =0+ thus 𝑥 2 + 2𝑎 𝑥 + 4𝑎2 = (𝑥 + 2𝑎) and
4𝑎2 4𝑎2

𝑏 𝑐 𝑏2 𝑏 2 𝑐 𝑏2
𝑥2 + 𝑥+ + = (𝑥 + ) + = OR
2𝑎 𝑎 4𝑎2 2𝑎 𝑎 4𝑎2

𝑏 2 𝑏2 𝑐 𝑏 𝑏2 𝑐
(𝑥 + 2𝑎) = 4𝑎2 − 𝑎 ∴ 𝑥 + 2𝑎 = ±√4𝑎2 − 𝑎

𝑏 𝑐
2. Alternatively, 𝑥 2 + 𝑎 𝑥 + 𝑎 = 0 can be expressed in the form,
𝑏 𝑏2 𝑐
(𝑥 + 𝜌)2 + 𝛾 = 0, thus 𝜌 = and 𝛾 = − 2 +
2𝑎 4𝑎 𝑎

−𝑏±√𝑏 2 −4𝑎𝑐
Since 𝑥 = {𝑥1 , 𝑥2 } ∴ 𝑥 = 2𝑎

The trigonometry method is applicable to solving quadratic, cubic and quartic equations.
This method involves using trigonometric ratio and its identity to solve second, third and fourth
degree polynomials. Trigonometry method for solving quadratic equations is as follows
If 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0, or rewritten as 𝑐2 𝑥 2 + 𝑐1 𝑥 + 𝑐0 = 0 and dividing both sides through by 𝑥.
𝑐0
Gives, 𝑐2 𝑥 + + 𝑐1 = 0. Thus by trigonometry transformation the quadratic equation becomes
𝑥

𝜌 𝑐0
𝜌 cos 𝜃 + 𝜇 = 0, where 𝑥 = 𝑎𝑒 𝑖𝜃 , ∴ = 𝑎𝑐2 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜇 = 𝑐1. Thus,
2 𝑎

𝑐 𝜇 −𝑐1 1 1 4𝑐2 𝑐0 −𝑐1 2

𝑎 = √𝑐0 ; 𝜌 = 2√𝑐2 𝑐0 ; cos 𝜃 = − 𝜌 = 2 ; 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝜌 √𝜌2 − 𝜇 2 = ± 2 √
2 √𝑐2 𝑐0 𝑐2 𝑐0

𝑐 −𝑐1 1 4𝑐2 𝑐0 −𝑐1 2 −𝑐1 ±𝑖√4𝑐2 𝑐0 −𝑐1 2

∴ 𝑥 = 𝑎𝑒 𝑖𝜃 = 𝑎(𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃) = √𝑐0 (2 ± 𝑖2√ )=
2 √𝑐2 𝑐0 𝑐2 𝑐0 2𝑐2

The latter result is the same as the completing square method.

Another way of trigonometry method is the use of trigonometry identity

2𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 2𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 𝑐1 2
tan2 𝜃 = 1−𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝜃 𝑜𝑟 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝜃 + tan2 𝜃 − 1 = 0, by transformation, 𝑥 = 𝑎𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃; = tan2 𝜃 ;
𝑎𝑐2

𝑐0 𝑐 2𝑎𝑐2 2𝑖√𝑐2 𝑐0 1 2𝑖√𝑐2 𝑐0

= −1 . ∴ 𝑎 = 𝑖 √ 0 ; tan2 𝜃 = = ; 𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( ). Therefore,
𝑎2 𝑐2 𝑐2 𝑐1 𝑐1 2 𝑐1

𝑐 1 2𝑖√𝑐2 𝑐0
𝑥 = 𝑥1 = 𝑎𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 = 𝑖√𝑐0 𝑡𝑎𝑛 (2 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( )) 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑐0 < 0 , 𝑐2 > 0; 𝑎𝑛𝑑
2 𝑐1

𝑐 1 2𝑖√𝑐2 𝑐0
𝑥 = 𝑥2 = atan(90 + 𝜃) = 𝑖 √𝑐0 𝑡𝑎𝑛 (90 + 2 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( )).
2 𝑐1

𝑒 𝑖4𝜃 −1 2𝑖√𝑐2 𝑐0 𝑐 −2√𝑐2 𝑐0

Also, for 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑐0 > 0 , 𝑐2 > 0; tan2 𝜃 = 𝑖(𝑒 𝑖4𝜃 +1) = ∴ 𝑒 𝑖2𝜃 = √𝑐1 +2
𝑐1 1 √𝑐2 𝑐0

𝑒 𝑖2𝜃 −1 √𝑐1 −2√𝑐2 𝑐0 −√𝑐1 +2√𝑐2 𝑐0 𝑐 √𝑐1 −2√𝑐2 𝑐0 −√𝑐1 +2√𝑐2 𝑐0

And tan 𝜃 = 𝑖(𝑒 𝑖2𝜃 +1) = ∴ 𝑥 = 𝑎𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 = √𝑐0 ( )
𝑖(√𝑐1 −2√𝑐2 𝑐0 +√𝑐1 +2√𝑐2 𝑐0 ) 2 √𝑐1 −2√𝑐2 𝑐0 +√𝑐1 +2√𝑐2 𝑐0

𝑐 √𝑐1 −2√𝑐2 𝑐0 −√𝑐1 +2√𝑐2 𝑐0 √𝑐1 −2√𝑐2 𝑐0 +√𝑐1 +2√𝑐2 𝑐0

ℎ𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝑥1 = √𝑐0 ( ) ; 𝑥2 = √𝑐2 𝑐0 ( )
2 √𝑐1 −2√𝑐2 𝑐0 +√𝑐1 +2√𝑐2 𝑐0 √𝑐1 −2√𝑐2 𝑐0 −√𝑐1 +2√𝑐2 𝑐0
The trigonometry method for solving Cubic Equations

The general expression of a cubic equation is given by

𝑐3 𝑥 3 + 𝑐2 𝑥 2 + 𝑐1 𝑥 + 𝑐0 = 0, thus this 4-term cubic equation can be transformed into a 3-term

cubic equation of variable, 𝑠 by eliminating the square term. Let the 3-term cubic equation be
𝑐
𝑞3 𝑠 3 + 𝑞1 𝑠 + 𝑞0 = 0 and 𝑠 =𝑥+𝑛 ∴ 𝑞3 = 𝑐3 ; 3𝑞3 𝑛 = 𝑐2 𝑜𝑟 𝑛 = 3𝑐2 ; 3𝑞3 𝑛2 + 𝑞1 =
3

3𝑐3 𝑐1 −𝑐22 27𝑐0 𝑐32 +2𝑐23 −9𝑐3 𝑐2 𝑐1

𝑐1 𝑜𝑟 𝑞1 = ; 𝑞3 𝑛3 + 𝑞1 𝑛 + 𝑞0 = 𝑐0 𝑜𝑟 𝑞0 = .
3𝑐3 27𝑐32

Having transformed the 4-term cubic equation to a 3-term cubic equation, we can further transform
the 3-term cubic equation into a corresponding 3-term trigonometry cubic equation of identity

𝑠𝑖𝑛3𝜃 = −4𝑠𝑖𝑛3 𝜃 + 3𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠3𝜃 = 4𝑐𝑜𝑠 3 𝜃 − 3𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃. The transformation of 𝑠 → 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 is as

follows:
𝑞1 𝑞0
Let 𝑠 = 𝑘𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 ∴ 𝑞3 𝑘 3 𝑠𝑖𝑛3 𝜃 + 𝑘𝑞1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 + 𝑞0 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛3 𝜃 + 𝑞 2
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 + 𝑞 3
= 0; 𝑠𝑖𝑛3 𝜃 −
3𝑘 3𝑘

3 𝑠𝑖𝑛3𝜃 𝑞1 3 4𝑞 𝑞0 𝑠𝑖𝑛3𝜃 3𝑞 3𝑞
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 + =0 ∴𝑞 2
= − 4 𝑜𝑟 𝑘 = 𝑖 √3𝑞1 ; = 𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛3𝜃 = −𝑖 2𝑞0 √ 𝑞 3.
4 4 3𝑘 3 𝑞3 𝑘 3 4 1 1

4𝑞 3𝑞 3𝑞
∴ 𝑠 = 𝑘𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝑖 √3𝑞1 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (sin−1 − 𝑖 2𝑞0 √ 𝑞 3 ). This solution has limitation and works only
3 1 1

3 𝑞
when −3𝑞0 √ 43 ≥ 𝑞1 < 0 and when 𝑞1 > 0, the solution ceases. Therefore, solution for 𝑞1 > 0 is

as follows:

3𝑞 3𝑞 1 𝑒 𝑖6𝜃 −1 3𝑞0 3𝑞
𝑠𝑖𝑛3𝜃 = −𝑖 2𝑞0 √ 𝑞 3 = 2𝑖 ( ) 𝑂𝑅 𝑒 𝑖6𝜃 − √ 𝑞 𝑒 𝑖3𝜃 − 1 = 0
3
1 1 𝑒 𝑖3𝜃 𝑞1 1

3
3𝑞 3𝑞 1 27𝑞3 𝑞02 3𝑞 3𝑞 1 27𝑞3 𝑞02
𝑇ℎ𝑢𝑠, 𝑒 𝑖3𝜃 = 2𝑞0 √ 𝑞 3 ± 2 √ + 4 𝑂𝑅 𝑒 𝑖𝜃 = √2𝑞0 √ 𝑞 3 ± 2 √ +4
1 1 4𝑞13 1 1 4𝑞13
 2
3
√(3𝑞0 √3𝑞3 ± 1 27𝑞3 𝑞02
√ + 4) − 1
2𝑞1 𝑞1 2 4𝑞13
𝐻𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 =

1 27𝑞3 𝑞02
3
3𝑞 3𝑞
2𝑖 √2𝑞0 √ 𝑞 3 ± 2 √ +4
1 1 4𝑞13

And

2
3
√(3𝑞0 √3𝑞3 ± 1 27𝑞3 𝑞02
√ + 4) − 1
2𝑞1 𝑞1 2 4𝑞13
𝑞1
𝑠 = 𝑘𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = √
3𝑞3
3
27𝑞3 𝑞02
√3𝑞0 √3𝑞3 ± 1 √ +4
2𝑞1 𝑞1 2 4𝑞13