Math 211- Calculus 2

Module 2
Lesson 1. Parametric Curves and the Calculus of
Parametric Curves
Suppose a particle moves in a plane so that the coordinates (𝑥, 𝑦) of its position at
any time 𝑡 are given by the equations
𝑥 = 𝑓 (𝑡) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 = 𝑔(𝑡) (1)
Then for every number 𝑡 in the domain common to 𝑓 and 𝑔 the particle is at point
(𝑓(𝑡), 𝑔(𝑡)) and these points trace a plane curve 𝐶 traveled by the particle.
Equation (1) is called parametric equations of 𝐶 an the variable 𝑡 is called the
parameter.

If the parameter 𝑡 is eliminated from the pair of equations (1), we obtain the
equation in 𝑥and 𝑦, called a cartesian equation of 𝐶.

Example 1. Find a cartesian equation of the curve defined by the parametric

equations 𝑥 = 4𝑡 − 5 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 = 4𝑡 − 3.

Solution. We eliminate 𝑡 from the two equations by solving the first equation for
1 5
𝑡 to obtain 𝑡 = 4 𝑥 + 4 and substituting in the second equation
1 5
𝑦 = 4( 𝑥 + )− 3 = 𝑥 +2
4 4
The graph of this equation is a line with slope 1 and 𝑦 intercept 2.

In general, the graph of any pair of parametric equations of the form

𝑥 = 𝑎𝑡 + 𝑏 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 = 𝑐𝑡 + 𝑑
where either 𝑎 ≠ 0 and 𝑏 ≠ 0, is a line.

Example 2. Find the cartesian equation of the graph of the parametric equations
𝑥 = 4 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 = 4 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑡 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 2𝜋

Solution. To eliminate 𝑡 from the two parametric equations, we square on both

sides of each equation and add, which gives

𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 16 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑡 + 16 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑡 = 16(𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑡 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑡) = 16(1) = 16

Thus, the cartesian equation is 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 16 The graph of this equation is a circle

with center at the origin and radius 4.

Example 3. Given the parametric equations

𝑥 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ 𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ 𝑡
Find the cartesian equation.

1|Page
 Math 211- Calculus 2

Solution. Squaring both sides of the two parametric equations and subtracting
we have
𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ2 𝑡 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ2 𝑡 = 1
Thus, the cartesian equation is 𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 = 1 which is a hyperbola. However, since
for any real number 𝑡, cosh 𝑡 is never less than 1. Thus the curve defined by the
given parametric equations consists of only points on the right branch of the
hyperbola.

Definition (Smooth Curve) A plane curve 𝐶 defined by the parametric equations

𝑥 = 𝑓 (𝑡 ) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 = 𝑔(𝑡) 𝑎≤𝑡≤𝑏
is said to be smooth on the closed interval [𝑎, 𝑏] if 𝑓 ′ and 𝑔′ are continuous on
[𝑎, 𝑏] and 𝑓 ′ (𝑡) and 𝑔′ (𝑡) are not both zero at every number in the open interval
(𝑎, 𝑏).

Example 4. For the circle in Example 2

𝑥 = 4 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 = 4 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑡 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 2𝜋

Thus, 𝑓 ′ (𝑡) = − 4𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑔′ (𝑡) = 4 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑡. Because 𝑓 ′ (𝑡) and 𝑔′ (𝑡) are
continuous for all 𝑡 and 𝑓 ′ (𝑡) and 𝑔′ (𝑡) are not both zero anywhere, the circle is
a smooth curve.

Definition (Closed Curve) A plane curve 𝐶 defined by the parametric equations

𝑥 = 𝑓 (𝑡 ) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 = 𝑔(𝑡) 𝑎≤𝑡≤𝑏
is said to be closed if the initial point 𝐴(𝑓(𝑎), 𝑔(𝑎)) and the terminal point
𝐵(𝑓(𝑏), 𝑔(𝑏)) coincide.

A smooth closed curve where points 𝐴 and 𝐵 coincide. A curve that does not cross
itself is called a simple curve.

Definition (Simple Curve) A plane curve 𝐶 defined by the parametric equations

𝑥 = 𝑓 (𝑡 ) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 = 𝑔(𝑡) 𝑎≤𝑡≤𝑏
is said to be simple between points 𝐴(𝑓(𝑎), 𝑔(𝑎)) and 𝐵(𝑓(𝑏), 𝑔(𝑏)) if
(𝑓(𝑡1 ), 𝑔(𝑡2 )) is not the same point as (𝑓(𝑡1 ), 𝑔(𝑡2 )) for all distinct 𝑡1 and 𝑡2 in the
open interval (𝑎, 𝑏).

Circles and ellipses are examples of smooth simple closed curves.

Suppose a smooth curve 𝐶 is defined parametrically by

𝑥 = 𝑓 (𝑡 ) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 = 𝑔(𝑡)
and that this pair of equations defines at least one differentiable function ℎ for which
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥
𝑦 = ℎ(𝑥). Then the derivative of each function ℎ, denoted by 𝑑𝑥 is related to 𝑑𝑡 and
𝑑𝑦
by the following equation given by the chain rule
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥
= 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
If ≠ 0, we can divide on both sides of this equation by and obtain
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑡
=
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑡

2|Page
 Math 211- Calculus 2

Note that this equation expresses the derivative of 𝑦 with respect to 𝑥 in terms of
the parameter 𝑡for all differentiable functions ℎ, such that 𝑦 = ℎ(𝑥) with 𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑡)
and 𝑦 = 𝑔(𝑡).
Because
𝑑2𝑦 𝑑 𝑑𝑦
= ( )
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
then
𝑑 2 𝑦 𝑑(𝑦 ′ )
=
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
Thus,
2
𝑑(𝑦 ′ )
𝑑 𝑦
= 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑡
Example 5. Given the parametric equations
𝑥 = 4 − 𝑡2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 = 𝑡 2 + 4𝑡

𝑑𝑦 𝑑2 𝑦
Find 𝑑𝑥 and 𝑑𝑥 2 without eliminating 𝑡.

Solution. Because
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥
= 2𝑡 + 4 𝑎𝑛𝑑 = −2𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Hence,
𝑑𝑦 2𝑡 + 4 2
= = −1 −
𝑑𝑥 −2𝑡 𝑡
Since
′
2 𝑑(𝑦 ′ ) 2
𝑦 = −1 − , = 2
𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑡
Then
𝑑(𝑦 ′ ) 2
𝑑2 𝑦 𝑑𝑥 𝑡 2 1
= = = −
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 −2𝑡 𝑡3
𝑑𝑡

Note. The slope of the tangent line at a point on curve 𝐶 defined by parametric
equations
𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑡) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 = 𝑔(𝑡)
is
𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑡
Therefore, the graph has a horizontal tangent line at a point where
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥
= 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ≠0
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
The graph has a vertical tangent line at a point where
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
= 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ≠0
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Example 6. Given the parametric equations
𝑥 = 4 − 𝑡2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 = 𝑡 2 + 4𝑡

3|Page
 Math 211- Calculus 2

a. Find the horizontal and vertical tangent lines.

b. Sketch the graph.

Solution.
(a) Note that
𝑥 = 4 − 𝑡2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 = 𝑡 2 + 4𝑡
Thus,
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
= −2𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 = 2𝑡 + 4
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥
When 𝑡 = −2, = 0 and 𝑑𝑡 ≠ 0. Thus the graph has a horizontal tangent line at
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
(0, −4). When 𝑡 = 0, = 0 and ≠ 0. The graph has a vertical tangent line at
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
(4,0).

(b)

Length of Arc of a Plane Curve

Let 𝐶 be the curve having parametric equations

𝑥 = 𝑓 (𝑡 ) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 = 𝑔(𝑡)
And suppose that 𝑓 and 𝑔 are continuous on the closed interval [𝑎, 𝑏]. We wish to
assign a number 𝐿 to represent the number of units in the length of arc of 𝐶 from
𝑡 = 𝑎 to 𝑡 = 𝑏.

Theorem. Let the curve 𝐶 have parametric equations 𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑡) and 𝑦 = 𝑔(𝑡), and
suppose the 𝑓 ′ and 𝑔′ are continuous on the closed interval [𝑎, 𝑏]. Then if 𝐿 units
is the length of arc of the curve 𝐶 from point (𝑓(𝑎), 𝑔(𝑎)) to the point (𝑓(𝑏), 𝑔(𝑏)),

𝑏
𝐿 = ∫ √|𝑓 ′ (𝑡)|2 + |𝑔′ (𝑡)|2 𝑑𝑡
𝑎
Example 1. Find the length of arc of the curve having parametric equations
𝑥 = 𝑡3 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 = 2𝑡 2
for each cases:
a. from 𝑡 = 0 to 𝑡 = 1
b. from 𝑡 = −2 to 𝑡 = 0

Solution. Note that

𝑓 ′ (𝑡) = 3𝑡 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑔′ (𝑡) = 4𝑡
a.
1 1
𝐿𝑎 = ∫ √9𝑡 4 + 16𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡 = ∫ √𝑡 2 √9𝑡 2 + 16 𝑑𝑡
0 0
1
1 2 3 1 61
= ∫ 𝑡 √9𝑡 2 + 16 𝑑𝑡 = [ . (9𝑡 2 + 16)2 ] =
0 18 3 0 27
Observe that in the third integral, √𝑡 2 = 𝑡 since 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 1.
b.

4|Page
 Math 211- Calculus 2

0 0
𝐿𝑏 = ∫ √9𝑡 4 + 16𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡 = ∫ √𝑡 2 √9𝑡 2 + 16 𝑑𝑡
−2 −2
0
1 2 3 0
2
=∫ −𝑡 √9𝑡 2
+ 16 𝑑𝑡 = [− . (9𝑡 + 16)2 ] ≈ 11.5
−2 18 3 −2
2
Observe that in the third integral, √𝑡 = −𝑡 since −2 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 0.

Example 2. Derive the formula for the circumference of a circle of radius 𝑎 by

computing the length of arc of
𝑥 = 𝑎 cos 𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 = 𝑎 sin 𝑡 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 2𝜋

Solution.
2𝜋
𝐿 = ∫ √(− a sin 𝑡) 2 + (𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡)2 𝑑𝑡
0
2𝜋
= ∫ √𝑎2 (𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑡 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑡)𝑑𝑡
0
2𝜋
= √𝑎2 ∫ 𝑑𝑡 = [𝑎𝑡]2𝜋
0 = 2𝜋𝑎
0

5|Page
 Math 211- Calculus 2

Lesson 2. Polar Coordinates and Graphs of Equations in

Polar Coordinates

The table below is helpful in sketching the graphs of equations in polar coordinates.
Table 1. Summary of Polar Equations of Lines and Circles
Let 𝐶, 𝑎 and 𝑏 be constants.
𝜃=𝐶 Line containing pole, making angle of radian measure 𝐶 with polar
axis.
𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 = 𝑏 Line parallel to polar axis; above polar axis if 𝑏 > 0; below polar axis
if 𝑏 < 0.
1 1
𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 = 𝑎 Line parallel to 2 𝜋 axis ; to the right of 𝜋 axis if 𝑎 > 0; to the left of
2
1
2
𝜋 axis if 𝑎 < 0.

𝑟=𝐶 Circle; center at pole;radius is 𝐶

1
𝑟 = 2𝑎 cos 𝜃 Circle; radius is |𝑎|; tangent to 𝜋 axis; center on polar axis or its
2
extension.
𝑟 = 2𝑏 sin 𝜃 1
Circle; radius is |𝑏|; tangent to polar axis; center on 𝜋 axis or its
2
extension.

Example 1. Sketch the graph of the following:

𝜋
𝑎. 𝜃 = 𝑏. 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 = 5 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 = −5 𝑐. 𝑟 cos 𝜃 = 4 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 = −3
3
𝑑. 𝑟 = 2 𝑒. 𝑟 = −2 cos 𝜃 𝑓. 𝑟 = 6 sin 𝜃
Solution. The following are the graphs:

6|Page
Math 211- Calculus 2

7|Page
 Math 211- Calculus 2

Symmetry Tests
A polar graph is
a. symmetric with respect to the polar axis if an equivalent equation is obtained
when (𝑟, 𝜃) is replaced by either (𝑟, −𝜃) or (−𝑟, 𝜋 − 𝜃);
1
b. symmetric with respect to the 2 𝜋 axis if an equivalent equation is obtained
when (𝑟, 𝜃) is replaced by either (𝑟, 𝜋 − 𝜃) or (−𝑟, −𝜃);
c. symmetric with respect to the pole if an equivalent equation is obtained
when (𝑟, 𝜃) is replaced by either (−𝑟, 𝜃) or (𝑟, 𝜋 + 𝜃);

Table 2. Types of Limacons

Form the equation 𝑟 = 𝑎 + 𝑏 cos 𝜃 where 𝑎 > 0 and 𝑏 > 0:
𝑎
1. 0 < <1 Limacon with a loop.
𝑏
𝑎
2. =1 Cardioid (heart shape)
𝑏
𝑎
3. 1 < 𝑏 < 2 Limacon with a dent
𝑎
4. 2 ≤ 𝑏 Convex Limacon

Table 3. Symmetry and Direction of a Limacon (𝑎 > 0, 𝑏 > 0)

𝑟 = 𝑎 + 𝑏 cos 𝜃 Symmetry with respect to polar axis; points to right
𝑟 = 𝑎 − 𝑏 cos 𝜃 Symmetry with respect to polar axis; points to left
𝜋
𝑟 = 𝑎 + 𝑏 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 Symmetry with respect to axis; points upward
2
𝜋
𝑟 = 𝑎 − 𝑏 sin 𝜃 Symmetry with respect to axis; points downward
2

8|Page
 Math 211- Calculus 2

Table 4. Value of 𝑟 for Example 1, Example 2 and Example 3.

𝜃 𝑟 = 2 + cos 𝜃 𝑟 = 2 + 2 sin 𝜃 𝑟 = 0.5 + cos 𝜃

0 3 2 1.5
𝜋 ⁄6 ≈ 2.89 3 ≈ 1.37
𝜋 ⁄3 2.5 ≈ 3.73 1
𝜋 ⁄2 2 4 0.5
2 𝜋 ⁄3 1.5 0
5𝜋 ⁄6 ≈ 1.13 ≈ −0.37
𝜋 1 −0.5
7𝜋 ⁄6
4𝜋 ⁄3
3𝜋 ⁄2 0
5𝜋 ⁄3 ≈ 0.27
11𝜋 ⁄6 1
2𝜋 2

Example 1. Sketch the graph of 𝑟 = 2 + cos 𝜃.

𝑎
Solution. Since 𝑎 = 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 = 1,it follows that 𝑏 = 2. Thus, from Table 2, the
graph is a convex limacon. Also, from Table 3, 𝑟 = 2 + cos 𝜃 is symmetric to the
polar axis and points to right. Thus, it is enough to solve for 𝑟 on 0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 𝜋 and
use symmetry to determine other as shown in the first graph below. The points are
shown in Table 4. The second figure is the curve 𝑟 = 2 + cos 𝜃.

9|Page
 Math 211- Calculus 2

Example 2. Sketch the graph of 𝑟 = 2 + 2 sin 𝜃.

𝑎
Solution. Since = 1, from Table 2, the graph is a cardioid. From Table 3, the
𝑏
𝜋
curve is symmetric with respect to and points upwards. Thus, it is enough to
2
𝜋 3𝜋
solve for 𝑟 on 0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 2 and on 2 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 2𝜋 as shown in Table 4. The other points
are determined using symmetry as shown in the first figure.

Example 3. Sketch the graph of 𝑟 = 0.5 + cos 𝜃.

𝑎
Solution. Note that 𝑏 = 0.5 < 1. Thus, from Table 2, the curve is a limacon with
inner loop. From Table 3, the curve is symmetric with polar axis and points to the
right. Consider the points in Table 4 and the graph of 𝑟 = 0.5 + cos 𝜃 below.

10 | P a g e
 Math 211- Calculus 2

Table 5. Value of 𝑟 for Example 4, Example 5 and Example 6.

𝜃 𝑟=𝜃 𝑟 = sin 3𝜃 𝑟 2 = 4 cos 2𝜃

0 0 0 ±2
𝜋 ⁄6 𝜋⁄6 1 ±√2
𝜋 ⁄3 𝜋⁄3 0 𝑟 2 = −2 (complex numbers)
𝜋 ⁄2 𝜋⁄2 −1 𝑟 2 = −4 (complex numbers)
2 𝜋 ⁄3 2 𝜋 ⁄3 0 𝑟 2 = −2 (complex numbers)
5𝜋 ⁄6 5𝜋 ⁄6 1 ±√2
𝜋 𝜋 0 ±2
7𝜋 ⁄6 7𝜋 ⁄6 −1 ±√2
4𝜋 ⁄3 4𝜋 ⁄3 0 𝑟 2 = −2 (complex numbers)
3𝜋 ⁄2 3𝜋 ⁄2 1 𝑟 2 = −4 (complex numbers)
5𝜋 ⁄3 5𝜋 ⁄3 0 𝑟 2 = −2 (complex numbers)
11𝜋 ⁄6 11𝜋 ⁄6 −1 ±√2
2𝜋 2𝜋 0 ±2

Example 4. Sketch the graph of 𝑟 = 𝜃.

Solution. The points are shown in Table 5 and the graph of 𝑟 = 𝜃 is shown below.
The graph is a nonending spiral which is also known as the spiral of Archimedes.

11 | P a g e
 Math 211- Calculus 2

Example 5. Sketch the graph of 𝑟 = sin 3𝜃.

Solution. The points are shown in Table 5 and the graph of 𝑟 = sin 3𝜃 is shown
below which is a rose with 3 petals. In general, polar graphs whose graphs are
rose petals are of the form
𝑟 = a cos 𝑛𝜃 𝑜𝑟 𝑟 = a sin 𝑛𝜃
Moreover, if 𝑛 is odd, then there are 𝑛 petals. If 𝑛 is even, then there are 2𝑛 petals.

12 | P a g e
 Math 211- Calculus 2

Example 6. The graph below is the graph of the polar equations 𝑟 2 = 4 cos 𝜃 in
which the points is found in Table 5 is called a lemniscates also known as Bernoulli
lemniscates.

13 | P a g e
 Math 211- Calculus 2

Lesson 3. Tangent Lines, Areas and Arc Length of Polar

Curves

Slopes of the Graph of Polar Equations

Theorem. The graph of the polar equation 𝑟 = 𝑓(𝜃) is defined by the parametric
equations
𝑥 = 𝑓 (𝑡) cos 𝑡 and 𝑦 = 𝑓 (𝑡) sin 𝑡
Theorem. If 𝑚 is the slope of the tangent line to the graph of 𝑟 = 𝑓(𝜃) at the point
(𝑟, 𝜃), then
𝑑𝑟
sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 + 𝑟 cos 𝜃
𝑚=
𝑑𝑟
cos 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 − 𝑟 sin 𝜃
Example 7. Determine the horizontal tangent line and the vertical tangent line of
the cardioid 𝑟 = 2 + 2 sin 𝜃. Sketch the graph.
Solution. Note that
𝑑𝑟
= 2 cos 𝜃
𝑑𝜃
Hence,
𝑑𝑟
sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 + 𝑟 cos 𝜃 sin 𝜃(2 cos 𝜃) + (2 + 2 sin 𝜃 ) cos 𝜃
𝑚= =
𝑑𝑟
cos 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 − 𝑟 sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃 (2 cos 𝜃) − (2 + 2 sin 𝜃) sin 𝜃
2 cos 𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 + 2 cos 𝜃 + 2 cos 𝜃 sin 𝜃
=
2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 − 2 sin 𝜃 − 2𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃
2 cos 𝜃(1 + 2 sin 𝜃)
=
2 (1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃) − 2 sin 𝜃 − 2𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃
2 cos 𝜃(1 + 2 sin 𝜃)
=
−4𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 − 2 sin 𝜃 + 2
We will have the horizontal tangent line if 𝑚 = 0 . That is, if the numerator is 0 and
the denominator is not 0. Thus, we equate the numerator to 0 and solve for 𝜃.
2 cos 𝜃(1 + 2 sin 𝜃) = 0
Hence,
𝜋 3𝜋
2 cos 𝜃 = 0 ⟹ cos 𝜃 = 0 ⟹ 𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 0 ⟹ 𝜃 =
,
2 2
1 11𝜋 7𝜋
1 + 2 sin 𝜃 = 0 ⟹ 𝜃 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 (− ) ⟹ 𝜃 = ,
2 6 6

14 | P a g e
 Math 211- Calculus 2

3𝜋
However, the point when 𝜃 = , the denominator is also 0. Therefore, the curve
2
𝜋 11𝜋 7𝜋
have a horizontal tangent line at points (4, 2 ) , (1, 6 ) and (1, 6 ). The vertical
tangent line will occur if the numerator is not 0 and the denominator is 0. Hence,
−𝑏 ± √𝑏2 − 4𝑎𝑐 −(−2) ± √4 − (4)(−4)(2)
−4𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 − 2 sin 𝜃 + 2 ⟹ sin 𝜃 = =
2𝑎 2(−4)
2 ± √36 2 ± 6
sin 𝜃 = =
−8 −8
1
Thus, sin 𝜃 = −1 or sin 𝜃 = − 2. Therefore,
3𝜋
sin 𝜃 = −1 ⟹ 𝜃 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 (−1) ⟹ 𝜃=
2
1 1 𝜋 5𝜋
sin 𝜃 = − ⟹ 𝜃 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 (− ) ⟹ 𝜃 = ,
2 2 6 6
3𝜋
If 𝜃 = , then the numerator is also 0. Therefore, the vertical tangent line occur at
2

𝜋 5𝜋
the points (3, 6 ) and (3, ).
6

Length of Arc and Area of a Region for Polar Graphs

Formula for the length of arc of a polar graph:
𝛽
𝑑𝑟 2
𝐿 = ∫ √( ) + 𝑟 2 𝑑𝜃
𝛼 𝑑𝜃
Example 1. Find the length of the cardioid 𝑟 = 2 + 2 cos 𝜃.
Solution. To solve for the length of the cardioid, we can solve the length from 0
to 2𝜋 or solve the length only for 0 to 𝜋 and multiply by 2 to determine the total

15 | P a g e
 Math 211- Calculus 2

length of the cardioid. In this example, we will use the values of 𝜃 from 0 to 𝜋.
𝑑𝑟
Since 𝑟 = 2 + 2 cos 𝜃 = 2(1 + cos 𝜃) , it follows that 𝑑𝜃 = −2 sin 𝜃. Using the
formula, we have
𝜋
𝐿 = 2 ∫ √−2 sin 𝜃 2 + 4(1 + cos 𝜃) 2 𝑑𝜃
0
𝜋
= 4 ∫ √𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 + 1 + 2 cos 𝜃 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
0
𝜋
= 4 ∫ √1 + 2 cos 𝜃 + 1 𝑑𝜃
0
𝜋
= 4 ∫ √2(1 + cos 𝜃) 𝑑𝜃
0
𝜋
= 4√2 ∫ √1 + cos 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
0
𝜋
1
= 4√2 ∫ √2 cos 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
0 2
1 𝜋
= [16 sin 𝜃 ]
2 0
= 16
Theorem. Let 𝑅 be the region bounded by the lines 𝜃 = 𝛼 and 𝜃 = 𝛽 and the curve
whose equation is 𝑟 = 𝑓 (𝜃), where 𝑓 is continuous and nonnegative on the closed
interval [𝛼, 𝛽 ]. Then if 𝐴 square units is the area of region 𝑅,
1 𝛽
𝐴 = ∫ [𝑓(𝜃)]2 𝑑𝜃
2 𝛼
Example 1. Find the area of the region bounded by the limacon 𝑟 = 2 + cos 𝜃.
Sketch the graph and the region.
Solution. Since 𝑟 = 2 + cos 𝜃 is symmetric to the polar axis, we solve for the area
on 0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 𝜋 and multiply by 2. Thus, the formula becomes
1 𝛽 𝜋
𝐴 = 2 [ ∫ [𝑓(𝜃)]2 𝑑𝜃] = ∫ (2 + cos 𝜃 ) 2 𝑑𝜃
2 𝛼 0
𝜋 𝜋
2 )
1 1
= ∫ ( 4 + 4 cos 𝜃 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 = [4𝜃 + 4 sin 𝜃 + 𝜃 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃]
0 2 4 0

1 1 1 1
= 4𝜋 + 4 sin 𝜋 + 𝜋 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜋 − [4(0) − 4 sin 0 + (0) + sin 0]
2 4 2 4
1 9𝜋
= 4𝜋 + 𝜋 =
2 2

16 | P a g e
 Math 211- Calculus 2

Example 2. Find the area of the region inside the circle 𝑟 = 4 sin 𝜃 and outside the
limacon 𝑟 = 3 − sin 𝜃. Sketch the curves and the region.
Solution. We first solve for the intersection:
4 sin 𝜃 = 3 − sin 𝜃
6 sin 𝜃 = 3
1
sin 𝜃 =
2
𝜋 5𝜋
𝜃= ,
6 6
𝜋
From the figure below, since the region is symmetric to axis, we solve for the
2
𝜋 𝜋
area on 6 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ and multiply by 2. Thus, we have
2
𝜋
1 𝛽 2
𝐴 = 2 [ ∫ [𝑓(𝜃)]2 − [𝑔(𝜃)]2 𝑑𝜃 ] = ∫ [(16 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃) − (9 − 6 sin 𝜃 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2 𝜃)] 𝑑𝜃
2 𝛼 𝜋
6
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
2 2 2 2
= ∫ (15 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 − 9 + 6 sin 𝜃 ) 𝑑 𝜃 = 15 ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 𝑑 𝜃 − ∫ 9 𝑑 𝜃 + ∫ 6 sin 𝜃 𝑑 𝜃
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
6 6 6 6
𝜋
1 1 2
= [15 ( 𝜃 − sin 2𝜃) − 9𝜃 − 6 cos 𝜃]𝜋
2 4
6

17 | P a g e
 Math 211- Calculus 2

𝜋
15 15 2
= [ 𝜃 − sin 2𝜃 − 9𝜃 − 6 cos 𝜃]𝜋
2 4
6
15 𝜋 15 𝜋 𝜋 15 𝜋 15 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
= [ ( ) − sin 𝜋 − 9 ( ) − 6 cos ( )] − [ ( ) − sin ( ) − 9 ( ) − 6 cos ( )]
2 2 4 2 2 2 6 4 3 6 6
15𝜋 9𝜋 15𝜋 15 √3 9𝜋 √3
= − − + ( )+ +6( )
4 4 12 4 2 6 2
45𝜋 − 27𝜋 − 15𝜋 + 18𝜋 15√3 − 24√3
= +
12 8
21𝜋 9√3
= −
12 8

Reference: The Calculus 7 by Louis Leithold

18 | P a g e