V.

VECTOR AND TENSOR ANALYSIS

Scalar and vector fields
Introduction to Tensors

Recall the discussions in Chapter I (about vectors, vector spaces, and their properties)

 The word “Tensor” applies to virtually all the quantities encountered in Engineering.
 For an object to be proved to be a tensor we need to show that
it transforms a vector and its output is also a vector.
Secondly, that transformation must be linear.
 A tensor can be expressed in Component Form. (Eg. projection of 3D to 2D)
 For any tensor, certain scalar-valued functions are characteristic of the tensor, independent of
coordinate systems. These are usually the targets of computations of any tensor. They are
Principal Invariants.
 Tensors can be decomposed additively or multiplicatively to simpler tensors. The goal is to
make analysis easier and gain valuable insight by removing parts of the tensor not crucial to the
problem.
Objects that tensors may map between include vectors and scalars, and even other tensors.
There are many types of tensors, including
scalars and vectors (which are the simplest tensors),
multi-linear maps between vector spaces, and
even some operations such as the dot product.
Tensors are defined independent of any basis, although they are often referred to by their components in a
basis related to a particular coordinate system.

Simple tensors:
Annihilator tensor 𝐴(𝑣) = 0 ( the zero vector)
Identity tensor 𝐼(𝑣) = 𝑣
The coordinate transformation
The Vector Cross
A Dyad ⊗

A Dyad ⊗ is a transformation or an operator. It is defined by the result of its action on a vector.

Consider the dyad 𝐚⊗𝐛 and a vector space 𝑉
For fixed 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝑉, the action of the dyad (𝑥 ⊗ 𝑦)on a vector 𝑣 is defined as follows:
(𝑥 ⊗ 𝑦)𝑣 = (𝑦 ∙ 𝑣)𝑥
That is, it produces a vector in the direction (or opposite) of its first argument scaled by a factor of the
scalar product of its second argument with the vector it acts upon. A dyad is a tensor.

Eg 1. Take the vector space 𝑉 = ℝ2 and 𝑥 = (𝑥1 , 𝑥2 ), 𝑦 = (𝑦1 , 𝑦2 ) fixed. Then for a vector 𝑣 = (𝑣1 , 𝑣2 ),
(𝑥 ⊗ 𝑦)𝑣 = (𝑦 ∙ 𝑣)𝑥 = (𝑦1 𝑣1 + 𝑦2 𝑣2 )(𝑥1 , 𝑥2 ) which is a vector in the direction (or opposite) of 𝑥

Eg 2. Dyad of two base vectors: 𝑒𝑖 ⊗ 𝑒𝑗

(𝑒𝑖 ⊗ 𝑒𝑗 )𝑣 = (𝑒𝑗 ∙ 𝑣)𝑒𝑖
For 𝑒1 = (1,0,0), 𝑒2 = (0,1,0),
(𝑒1 ⊗ 𝑒2 )𝑣 = (𝑒2 ∙ 𝑣)𝑒1 and (𝑒1 ⊗ 𝑒2 )(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = (𝑦)(1,0,0) = (𝑦, 0,0)

The Shadow or the Projection

For a given 𝑥 ∈ 𝑉, we define the projection in the direction of 𝑥 as

1
 1 1
𝑃𝑥 (𝑣) =
2
(𝑥 ⊗ 𝑥)𝑣 = (𝑥 ∙ 𝑣)𝑥
‖𝑥‖ ‖𝑥‖2
Eg 1. In 𝑉 = ℝ3 , the projection of a vector (a point) 𝑣 = (𝑣1 , 𝑣2 , 𝑣3 ) in the direction of 𝑥 = (0,0,1) is
1
𝑃𝑥 (𝑣) = 2 (𝑣3 )(0,0,1) = (0,0, 𝑣3 )
1
1
Eg 2. The projection of a 𝑣 = (𝑣1 , 𝑣2 ) in the direction of 𝑥 = (1,1) is 𝑃𝑥 (𝑣) = (𝑣1 + 𝑣2 )(1,1).
2
The shadow of the vertical segment (4,0) on (1,1) is (2,2)
Ex: Show that the projection is a tensor (linear transformation that maps vectors to vectors)

Vector calculus
Curves
Bodies that move in space form paths that may be represented by curves C.
This and other applications show the need for parametric representations of C
with parameter t, which may denote time or something else.
A typical parametric representation is given by
𝒓(𝑡) = [𝑥(𝑡), 𝑦(𝑡), 𝑧(𝑡)] or 𝒓(𝑡) = 𝑥(𝑡)𝒊 + 𝑦(𝑡)𝒋 + 𝑧(𝑡)𝒌
Another way of obtaining parameterizations of curves is by taking different coordinates systems, such as,
for example, the spherical coordinates (radius and 2 angles) or the cylindrical ones (radius, height and
angle).

Straight Line
A straight line L through a point A with position vector 𝒂 in the direction of a constant vector 𝒃 can be
represented parametrically in the form
𝒓(𝑡) = 𝒂 + 𝑡𝒃
For instance, the straight line in the xy-plane through A(3, 2) in the direction of the vector (1,1) is
r(t) = (3, 2)+t (1,1) = (3+t, 2+t)

Q. What is the parametric representation of the line 𝑦 = 4𝑥 − 3?

Find a point on the line and a vector parallel to the line.
Take 𝐴 = (0, −3) and 𝒃 = (2,5) − (0, −3) = (2,8). Then 𝑟(𝑡) = (0, −3) + 𝑡(2,8)
Circle
Consider the circle 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 4 centered at the origin with radius 2.
𝑥 𝑦
cos 𝑡 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 sin 𝑡 =
2 2
This circle can be represented parametrically by
𝑟(𝑡) = (2 cos 𝑡, 2 sin 𝑡)
Ellipse
𝑥2 𝑦2
+ = 1, 𝑧 = 0 can be represented as 𝑟(𝑡) = (𝑎 cos 𝑡, 𝑏 sin 𝑡, 0) or 𝑟(𝑡) = 𝑎 cos 𝑡 𝒊 + 𝑏 sin 𝑡 𝒋
𝑎2 𝑏2

Tangent to a curve
Let a curve C be represented by 𝑟(𝑡).
Then 𝑟 ′ (𝑡), if it exists and is not zero, is called the tangent vector to C at 𝑟(𝑡).
Note that any non zero multiple of 𝑟 ′ (𝑡) is also a tangent vector.
The line with direction vector 𝑟 ′ (𝑡), and passing through 𝑟(𝑡) is called the tangent line to C at 𝑟(𝑡).
The tangent line at 𝑟(𝑡0 ) has the form
𝑇(𝑡) = 𝑟(𝑡0 ) + 𝑡𝑟 ′ (𝑡)
1 1
Eg. Find the tangent vector and the tangent line to the ellipse 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 1 at a point 𝑃 = (√2, )
4 √2
The parametric representation of the ellipse is 𝑟(𝑡) = (2 cos 𝑡, sin 𝑡)
𝜋
Point 𝑃 corresponds to 𝑡 =
4

2
 The tangent vector at any 𝑡 is given by 𝑟 ′ (𝑡) = (−2 sin 𝑡, cos 𝑡)
𝜋 𝜋 1
At 𝑃, the tangent vector is (−2 sin , cos ) = (−√2, ) and the tangent line is
4 4 √2
1 1 1 1
𝑇(𝑡) = (√2, ) + 𝑡(−√2, ) or 𝑇(𝑡) = (√2 − √2𝑡, + 𝑡)
√2 √2 √2 √2
What is it in the x-y equation?
Arc length
The length of a continuous curve defined by 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥), between 𝑎 and 𝑏 , is
𝑏
𝑙 = ∫𝑎 √1 + (𝑓 ′ (𝑥))2 𝑑𝑥
𝑏
If the curve is parameterized, 𝑙 = ∫𝑎 √𝑟 ′ ∙ 𝑟 ′ 𝑑𝑡
☛ If there are finite numbers of discontinuity, break the interval at such points and apply the formula for
each sub interval.

Surfaces
Representations of a surface S in 𝑥𝑦𝑧-space are
𝑧 = 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) or 𝑔(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 0
For a parametric representation we need two parameters, say 𝑢 and 𝑣. Then, a parametric representation
of a surface S in space is of the form
𝒓(𝑢, 𝑣) = [𝑥(𝑢, 𝑣), 𝑦(𝑢, 𝑣), 𝑧(𝑢, 𝑣)] or 𝒓(𝑡) = 𝑥(𝑢, 𝑣)𝒊 + 𝑦(𝑢, 𝑣)𝒋 + 𝑧(𝑢, 𝑣)𝒌

See examples in Kreyszig (page 440)

Normal vector and tangent plane

For a differentiable real valued function 𝑓 on ℝ𝑛 , the gradient ( ∇) of 𝑓 at 𝑥 is defined by
𝜕𝑓(𝑥) 𝜕𝑓(𝑥)
∇𝑓(𝑥) = ( ,…, )
𝜕𝑥1 𝜕𝑥𝑛
☛ ∇𝑓(𝑥0 ), if it is not zero, is perpendicular to every tangent vector to a smooth curve lying on a surface
and passing through𝑥0 . For this reason we say that ∇𝑓(𝑥0 ) is perpendicular or normal to the surface at𝑥0 .
As a vector, a gradient points in the direction of maximum increase of 𝑓
If ∇𝑓(𝑥0 ) ≠ 0, the set of all points 𝑥 satisfying ∇𝑓(𝑥0 ) ∙ (𝑥 − 𝑥0 ) = 0 is the tangent plane to the
surface at 𝑥0 .

Eg. The point 𝑥0 = (1,1, √2) is on the cone 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 𝑧 2 = 0

The normal vector at 𝑥0 is ∇𝑓(𝑥0 ) = (2,2, −2√2)
Then ∇𝑓(𝑥0 ) ∙ (𝑥 − 𝑥0 ) = (2,2, −2√2) ∙ (𝑥 − 1, 𝑦 − 1, 𝑧 − √2)
= 2(𝑥 − 1) + 2(𝑦 − 1) − 2√2(𝑧 − √2)
Therefore, the tangent plane is give by
𝑥 + 𝑦 − √2𝑧 = 0

Directional derivative
Partial derivatives give the rates of change of 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) in the directions of the three coordinate axes.
What is the rate of change of 𝑓 in an arbitrary direction in space? These are derivatives with respect to a
vector.
A directional derivative is a generalization of the partial derivative.
For each vector 𝑣 of length 1, the directional derivative of 𝒇 in the direction of 𝒗 is the function 𝐷𝑣 𝑓
defined by
𝐷𝑣 𝑓(𝑥) = ∇𝑓(𝑥) ∙ 𝑣
☛ The reason to take v of length 1 is to associate a unit vector in that direction. If a non zero vector 𝑤 is
1
not of length one, take 𝑣 = ‖𝑤‖ 𝑤

3
Eg.: To find the directional derivative of 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 2𝑥 2 + 3𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 in the direction of vector
𝑤 = (1,0, −2), first find a unit vector 𝑣 in the direction of 𝑤
1 1 −2 4 2
𝑣 = (1,0, −2) . Then 𝐷𝑤 𝑓(𝑥) = (4𝑥, 6𝑦, 2𝑧) ∙ ( , 0, ) = 𝑥− 𝑧
√5 √5 √5 √5 √5
8 6 2
At a point 𝑝(2,1,3), the directional derivative is = − =
√5 √5 √5
The minus sigh indicates that at 𝑝 the function is decreasing in the direction of 𝑤

Vector fields
Vector fields are important tools for describing many physical concepts, such as gravitation and
electromagnetism, which affect the behavior of objects over a large region of a plane or of space.
How can we model the gravitational force exerted by multiple astronomical objects?
How can we model the velocity of water particles on the surface of a river?

From a scalar field we can obtain a vector field. For example gradient of a function
𝜕𝑓(𝑥) 𝜕𝑓(𝑥)
∇𝑓(𝑥1 , 𝑥2 ) = 𝒊+ 𝒋
𝜕𝑥1 𝜕𝑥2
Conversely, from a vector field we can obtain a scalar field. Eg. 𝑑𝑖𝑣 𝑣 defined below.
From a vector field we can also obtain another vector field. Eg. 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙 𝑣 defined below.
Such assignments are vector fields

Divergence
Let 𝑣(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) be a differentiable vector function, where x, y, z are Cartesian coordinates, and let
𝑣1 , 𝑣2 , 𝑣3 be the components of 𝑣. Then the function
𝜕𝑣1 𝜕𝑣2 𝜕𝑣3
𝑑𝑖𝑣 𝑣 = + +
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
is called the divergence of v or the divergence of the vector field defined by v.
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
By writing ∇ as ( , , ) , the compact form of divergence is
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝒅𝒊𝒗 𝒗 = 𝛁 ∙ 𝒗

Eg. Find the divergence of 𝑣 = (2𝑥 − 𝑦 2 , 3𝑧 + 𝑥 2 , 4𝑦 − 𝑧 2 ) at the point (1,2,3)

𝑣1 = 2𝑥 − 𝑦 2 , 𝑣2 = 3𝑧 + 𝑥 2 , 𝑣3 = 4𝑦 − 𝑧 2
𝜕𝑣1 𝜕𝑣2 𝜕𝑣3
=2, =0, = −2𝑧
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
Therefore, 𝑑𝑖𝑣 𝑣 = 2 − 2𝑧. At the point (1,2,3) it is -4

Note that the divergence of a vector field is a scalar quantity.

☛ Divergence measures the net outflow of a vector field.

If the divergence is positive everywhere, then there is a net outflow over every closed curve/surface. This
is sometimes referred to as a source.
If the divergence is negative everywhere, then there is a net inflow over every closed curve/surface. This
is sometimes referred to as a sink.
A vector field with zero divergence everywhere is called 'incompressible' with zero net outflow over
every closed curve/surface.
In general,
 A positive divergence means that the vector field is growing in strength.
 A negative divergence means that the vector field is decreasing in strength.
 A zero divergence means that the vector field is not changing in strength.

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Curl
Let be a differentiable vector function of the Cartesian
coordinates x, y, z. Then the curl of the vector function v or of the vector field given by v is defined by the
“symbolic” determinant
𝒊 𝒋 𝒌
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙 𝑣 = | |
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝑣1 𝑣2 𝑣3

Or more compactly as 𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒍 𝒗 = 𝛁 × 𝐯

Eg. Let 𝒗 = (𝑦𝑧, 3𝑧𝑥, 𝑧) 𝑦𝑧 𝒊 + 3𝑧𝑥 𝒋 + 𝑧 𝒌

Here 𝑣1 = 𝑦𝑧 , 𝑣2 = 3𝑧𝑥, 𝑣3 = 𝑧

𝒊 𝒋 𝒌
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙 𝑣 = | 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
| = −3𝑥𝒊 + 𝑦𝒋 + (3𝑧 − 𝑧)𝒌 = −3𝑥𝒊 + 𝑦𝒋 + 2𝑧𝒌
𝑦𝑧 3𝑧𝑥 𝑧
At a point (1, 2, 3), 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙 𝑣 = −3𝒊 + 2𝒋 + 6𝒌

The curl of a vector field is itself a vector field in that evaluating curl v at a point gives a vector.
The vector output of curl v represents the rotational strength of the vector field as a linear combination of
rotational strengths (or circulation densities) from two-dimensional planar descriptions. From our
description of vectors as a representation of rotations, we can think of rotation in three dimensions as
being represented by a vector where
 the direction of the vector represents the axis of rotation and
 the magnitude of the vector represents the strength of the rotation.

Gradient, divergence, and curl appear in fluid mechanics problems. As an example, think about a water
coming out of a hose and a toilet bowl
A gradient essentially tells you how much a surface or some quantity changes from one point in
space/time to another. The gradient at a point of the bowl tells you how fast the water is moving or what
the pressure of the water is
The divergence would be “where is the water flowing and how much is flowing”. The divergence can tell
you how fast and in what direction a fluid is moving. At the center of the toilet bowl, we have negative
divergence because water is flowing inwards. At the rim, we have positive divergence as the water is
moving away from the rim.
A curl tells you how much something twists or “Curls”. If you wanted to know how much the water
twisted in a certain section you would do that using the curl.