CURVES

SPACE CURVE DEFINITION.

A curve which may [ass through any region of three dimensional space, as contrasted to a plane
curve which must lie on a single plane.

CURVE DEFINITION.

A continuously differentiable curve (function) is called smooth. To define the curvature it is

convenient to use the Frenet frame; which is actually a part of orthogonal coordinates having
origin that the point of interest P.

𝑑𝑡
Frenet formulae = 𝑘(𝑠) . 𝑣(𝑠) . 𝑛(𝑠)
𝑑𝑠

𝑑𝑡
Binormal b = txn 𝑑𝑠 = − 𝑘(𝑠) . 𝑣 (𝑠) . 𝑡(𝑠)

SPACE CURVES
An example of a space curve
A helix can be generated by the following parametric relations.
𝑥 = 𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡
𝑦 = 𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑡
𝑧 = 𝑏𝑡
𝑟, 𝑏 ≠ 0, −∞ ≤ 𝑡 ≤ ∞

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SPACE CURVES
A conical helix can be generated by the following parametric relations with frequency a and height of the
Cone.
ℎ−𝑧
𝑥= 𝑟 cos(𝑎𝑧)
ℎ

ℎ−𝑧
𝑦= 𝑟 sin(𝑎𝑧)
ℎ

𝑧=𝑧 0 ≤ 𝑧 ≤ ℎ

FUNDAMENTAL THEOREM OF SPACE CURVES

If two single-valued continuous functions k(s) (curvature) and t(s) (torsion) are given for s>0, then
there exists exactly one space curve, determined except for orientation and position in space, where
s is the arc length, k is the curvature, and t is the torsion.

In other words, a relation f (k, t, s) = 0 uniquely defines the space curve.

The spherical curve taken by a ship which travels from the South Pole to the north pole of a
sphere while keeping a fixed (but not right) angle with respect to the meridians. The curve has an
infinite number of loops since the separation of consecutive revolutions gets smaller and smaller
near the poles.

It is given by the parametric equations.

𝑥 = cos 𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑐
𝑦 = sin 𝑡 sin 𝑐
𝑥 = 𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡

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𝑧 = − sin 𝑐
𝑐 = tan -1 (at)

PARAMETRIC REPRESENTATION OF CURVES AND SURFACES

There are three types of curve equations; -

(i). Implicit Form, for example x2 + y2 =R2, z= 0

(ii). Explicit form, for example 𝑦 (𝑥 ) = √𝑅² − 𝑋², 𝑍 = 0

(iii). Parametric form, for example x (θ) =Rcosθ, y (θ) =Rsinθ, z (θ) = 0

Straight Line and Conic Curves

 Straight line: x(u) = x0 + dx u

y(u) = y0 + dy u
z(u) = z0 + dz u

 Circle: x(u) = R cosu

y(u) = R sinu
z(u) = 0

 Ellipse: x(u) = a cosu

y(u) = b sinu
z(u) = 0

 Hyperbola: x(u) = a coshu

y(u) = b sinhu
z(u) = 0

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 Parabola: x(u) = cu2
y(u) = u
z(u) = 0
Line segments and conic arcs are established by specifying ranges for u (e.g., 0 ≤ u ≤π/2; or 0 ≤ u ≤ 1).

Transformation equations are used to rotate and translate the curves to the desired orientation and
location.

Polynomial Freeform Curves

Freeform curves (and even straight line are arc) are represented in computer-aided design and
drafting using polynomials. Example;

B-Spline Curve
• The coefficients a0, a1, a2, a3 are hard for a designer to specify because the geometric affect is
not intuitive.

• CAD software therefore uses “B-Spline” curves.

• B-Spline curves are controlled using “control points”

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Closed versus Open Curves

AB-Spline curve can be “open” or “closed”

B-Spline Curve Properties

- Open curves always pass through the first and last point.
- The tangent at first point is given by the direction from the first control point to the second.

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- The tangent at last point is given by the direction from the second last control point to the
last.
- The same curve will result if the control points are created in the reverse order (only u = 0
will be at the reverse end).
- The curve is always inside the convex hull of the control polygon.

Primitive surfaces.

Plane.

P (u,v) = ui + vj + 0k

cylinder.

P (u,v) = R cosu i + R sinu j + vk

“Primitive surfaces”

 Plane P(u, v) = ui + vj + 0k
 Cylinder P(u, v) = R cosu i + R sinu j + vk
 Sphere P(u, v) = R cosu cosvi + R sinu cosvj + R sinvk
 Cone P(u, v) = mv cosui + mv sinuj +vk

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  Torus P(u, v) = (R + r cosv) cosui + (R + r cosv) sinuj + r sinvk

Transformation equation are used to rotate and translate these surfaces into the desired
orientation and location.

ORIENTATION

1. Orientation on R2. In the plane R2 an orientation defines which direction of rotation is the
positive sense. An orientation is prescribed by giving an ordered pair of linearly independent
vectors
(v, w), v = (v1,v2), w = (w1 , w2).

By definition the direction of rotation from v to w through an angle less than π is the positive
direction.

2. Positive sense on a Jordan curve.

A differentiable Jordan curve is a continuously differentiable closed curve without self-
intersections. Such a curve is also called a simple closed curve. The Jordan Curve Theorem asserts
that in the plane the complement of a Jordan curve has exactly two open connected components,
one of which is bounded. The bounded component is called the interior. Though this result is
difficult for continuous Jordan curves, the differentiability permits a fairly straight forward proof
using the Inverse Function Theorem.

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The orientation on R2 determines a positive sense, equivalently a direction of motion, on a Jordan
curve. It is the counterclockwise sense. Equivalently, the ordered pair consisting of the unit forward
tangent vector and the inward unit normal form a positively oriented pair in R2. An intuitive
description is that an airplane moving tangent to the boundary with its nose in the positive sense
will have its left wing pointing into the domain.

3. Positive sense on a more complicated boundary.

The prescription, either with airplane with left wing inward, or unit forward tangent and interior
unit normal being positively oriented tells which way to orient the boundary of holes in the interior
of a domain. In the figure the domain is the inside of a Jordan curve with two disks punched out.
This creates two circular boundaries at the edges of the disks. The positive sense on these interior
circles is counterclockwise.

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DRAWING PIECEWISE SMOOTH CURVES

A smooth function.

A smooth function.

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A smooth function.

LENGTH OF A CURVE
Length of a plane curve.
A plane curve is a curve that lie in a two-dimensional plane. We can define curve using parameter
equations. This means we define both x and y function of a parameter.
Parametric equation.
𝜃 < [0, 2𝜋)
𝑦 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃, 𝑥 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 This is a parametric equation for a unit circle centered at xy plane.

𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 = 1

𝑥² + 𝑦² = 1

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Definition.

A plane curve is smooth, if it is given by a pair of parametric equation x = f(x), y = g(t), t is on

the interval [a, b] where 𝑓′(𝑡) and 𝑔′(𝑡) are not simultaneously zero on [a, b].

For example.

Sketch the graph of the curve given by these parametric equation x = 3t 2, y = 2t2 – 1

1≤𝑡≤4

Solution.

Table of values.

t x Y x = 3t2 + 2

1 5 1 x – 2 = 3t2

𝑥−2
2 14 7 𝑡2 = 3

3 29 17 Substitute into y – equation

4 50 31 y = 2t2 – 1

𝑥−2 2
𝑦 = 2( ) −1
3

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ARC LENGTH

We can approximate the length of a plane curve by adding up length of linear segments between
points of the curves.

𝑏
𝐿 = ∫ √(𝑓 ′ (𝑡))² + (𝑔′ (𝑡))² 𝑑𝑡
𝑎

𝑑𝑥 2
𝑏
𝑑𝑦 2
𝐿 = ∫ √( ) + ( ) 𝑑𝑡
𝑎 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

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In parametric form we use this when x = f (t), y = g (t), t ∈ [a, b]

2.

𝑏
𝑑𝑦 2
𝐿 = ∫ √1 + ( ) 𝑑𝑡
𝑎 𝑑𝑥

We use this when y = f (x) and x ∈ [a, b]

3.

𝑏
𝑑𝑦 2
𝐿 = ∫ √1 + ( ) 𝑑𝑡
𝑐 𝑑𝑦

We use this when x = h (y) and y ∈ [c, d]

Example 2. Find the circumference of the circle x2 + y2 = r2

Solution.

𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 𝑟²

x = r cost = f (t), y = r sint = g (t)

𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 𝑟²

= (𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡)2 + (𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑡)²

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= 𝑟 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠²𝑡 + 𝑟 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑡

= 𝑟 2 (𝑐𝑜𝑠²𝑡 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑡)

= 𝑟 2 (1)

𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 𝑟²

From,

𝑏
𝐿 = ∫ √(𝑓 ′ (𝑡))² + (𝑔′ (𝑡))² 𝑑𝑡
𝑎

(a, b) = (0, 2 𝜋)

𝑓 (𝑡) = 𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡, 𝑔(𝑡) = 𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑡

𝑓 ′(𝑡) = −𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑡, 𝑔′(𝑡) = 𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡

2𝜋
𝐿=∫ √(−𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑡)² + (𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡)² 𝑑𝑡
0
2𝜋
𝐿=∫ √𝑟 2 (𝑠𝑖𝑛²𝑡 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠²𝑡) 𝑑𝑡
0
2𝜋 2𝜋
𝐿=∫ 𝑟𝑑𝑡 = 𝑟 ∫ 𝑑𝑡
0 0
2𝜋
𝐿 = 𝑟(𝑡) ∫ = 𝑟 (2𝜋)
0

𝐿 = 2𝜋𝑟

SURFACE AREA

Differential of Arc length.

Let f (x) be continuously differentiable on [a, b]. Start measuring arc length from (a, f (a)) up to
(x, f (x)), where a is a real number. Then, the arc length is a function of x.

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Accumulate arc length

𝑥
𝐿 = 𝑠(𝑥 ) = ∫𝑎 √1 + (𝑓 ′ (𝑡))² 𝑑𝑡

Take derivative wrtx.

𝑑𝑠 𝑑 𝑥 2
= 𝑑𝑥 (∫𝑎 √1 + (𝑓 ′ (𝑡)) 𝑑𝑡)
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑠 2
= √1 + (𝑓 ′ (𝑡))
𝑑𝑥

2
𝑑𝑠 = √1 + (𝑓 ′ (𝑡)) 𝑑𝑥

If y = f (x)

Also,

2 2
𝑑𝑠 = √(𝑓 ′ (𝑡)) + (𝑔′ (𝑡)) 𝑑𝑡

If x = f (t), y = g (t)

And,

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 2
𝑑𝑠 = √1 + (ℎ′ (𝑦)) 𝑑𝑦

If x = h (y)

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