Complex variables and their geometrical

representation
Complex plane:
The set of complex numbers forms the complex plane which we denote by C.
Real numbers 𝑅 ⊆ 𝐶 (with imaginary part 0)
Example: 2 ∈ 𝑅 ⟹ 2 + 0𝑖 ∈ 𝐶 ⟹ 𝑅 ∈ 𝐶

Geometric representation of complex number 𝒛 = 𝒙 + 𝒊𝒚

Complex conjugate
The complex conjugate is important because it permits us to switch from complex to
real.
By multiplication 𝒛𝒛 = 𝒙𝟐 + 𝒚𝟐
By addition 𝒛 + 𝒛 = 𝟐𝒙
By subtraction 𝒛 − 𝒛 = 𝟐𝒊𝒚
Real numbers 𝑅 ⊆ 𝐶 (with imaginary part 0)

Example: 2 ∈ 𝑅 ⟹ 2 + 0𝑖 ∈ 𝐶 ⟹ 𝑅 ∈ 𝐶
Properties of complex conjugate

1. 𝑧 = 𝑧
2. 𝑧1 + 𝑧2 = 𝑧1 + 𝑧2
3. 𝑧1 . 𝑧2 = 𝑧1 . 𝑧2
𝑧+𝑧
4. 𝑅𝑒 𝑧 =
2
𝑧−𝑧
5. 𝐼𝑚 𝑧 =
2𝑖
Modulus of a Complex number
Distance of any number 𝑧 (= 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦) from origin is called modulus of 𝑧.

Example: 1. If 𝑧 = 𝑎 + 𝑖𝑏
then 𝑧 = 𝑎−0 2 + 𝑏−0 2

= 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 .

2. If 𝑧 = 6 + 8𝑖 then 𝑧 = 62 + 82 = 100 = 10.

Properties of modulus of a complex number:

1. If z be any complex number , then

| − 𝒛| = |𝒛|
Proof:
Let 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦, then – 𝑧 = −𝑥 – 𝑖𝑦.

−𝑧 = −𝑥 2 + −𝑦 2 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = |𝑧|
2. If z be any complex number , then |𝐳| = 𝟎 if and only if 𝒛 = 𝟎.
Proof:
Let 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦, then |𝑧| = 𝑥2 + 𝑦2
Now |𝑧| = 0 if and only if 𝑥2 + 𝑦2 = 0
⇒ if only if 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 0 i.e., 𝑥 2 = 0 and 𝑦 2 = 0
⇒ if only if 𝑥 = 0 and 𝑦 = 0 i.e., 𝑧 = 0 + 𝑖0
⇒ if only if 𝑧 = 0.
Polar form of a complex number
The polar form of a complex number is another way to represent a complex number.
The form 𝒛 = 𝒂 + 𝒃𝒊 is called the rectangular coordinate form of a complex number.

The horizontal axis is the real axis and the vertical

axis is the imaginary axis. We find the real and
complex components in terms of 𝑟 and 𝜃
where 𝑟 is the length of the vector and 𝜃
is the angle made with the real axis.
The polar form of 𝑧 = 𝑎 + 𝑖𝑏 = 𝑟 cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃 = 𝑟 𝑒 𝑖𝜃 where 𝑟 =
−1 𝑏
𝑎 + 𝑏 and 𝜃 = tan
2 2 for 𝑎 > 0
𝑎
Argument: Argument of any non-zero complex number z is the value of all
angles 𝜃 which satisfies the condition (𝑟 cos 𝜃 + 𝑟 𝑖 sin 𝜃)
arg 𝑧 = {𝜃 ∶ 𝑟 cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃 }
Example 2: Find the argument of 𝒛 = 𝟏 + 𝒊.
Solution:

𝑧 =1+𝑖
so, 𝑥 = 1 and 𝑦 = 1 ⟹ 𝑟= 𝑥2 + 𝑦2 = 2

𝑦 −1
1
tan 𝜃 = ⟹ 𝜃 = tan
𝑥 1

𝜋
⟹ 𝜃= tan−1 1 = + 2𝑛𝜋 .
4

Note: arg 𝑧 is always an infinite set.

Properties of Argument:

1.

2.
Principle Argument: Argument of any non-zero complex number z is the value of all
angles 𝜃 which satisfies the condition (𝑟 cos 𝜃 + 𝑟 𝑖 sin 𝜃)
Arg 𝑧 = {𝜃 ∶ 𝑟 cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃 }
It is always a singleton set.

Example 2: Find the argument of 𝒛 = 𝟑 + 𝟑𝒊.

Solution:

𝑧 = 𝟑 + 𝟑𝒊

so, 𝑥 = 3 and 𝑦 = 3 ⟹ 𝑟= ( 3)2 +( 3)2 = 6

𝑦
tan 𝜃 = ⟹ 𝜃 = tan−1 ( −1)
𝑥

𝜋
⟹ 𝜃=− .
4
 Circles and Disks, Half Planes

1. Unit circles: 𝒛 =𝟏

or 𝒙𝟐 + 𝒚𝟐 = 𝟏 or 𝒙𝟐 + 𝒚𝟐 = 𝟏

which is the equation of circle with

radius 1
 Circle in the Complex Plane
It shows a general circle of radius 𝑟 and centre at (𝑎, 𝑏). Its equation is

𝑧 − (𝑎 + 𝑖𝑏) = 𝑟

or 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 − (𝑎 + 𝑖𝑏) = 𝑟

⟹ 𝑥 − 𝑎 + 𝑖 (𝑦 − 𝑏) = 𝑟

⟹ 𝑥−𝑎 2 + (𝑦 − 𝑏)2 = 𝑟

⟹ 𝑥 − 𝑎 2 +(𝑦 − 𝑏)2 = 𝑟 2

Which show the equation of a circle with radius 𝑟 and centre at 𝑎, 𝑏 .

 Annulus in the Complex Plane
Let A and B are the two circles with radius 𝜌1 and 𝜌2 and having a same centre at 𝑎,
such that 𝜌1 < 𝜌2 . Its equation is X

𝜌1 < 𝑧 − 𝑎 < 𝜌2
Neighborhood (Nbd) of a point : An open circular disc 𝑧 − 𝑎 < 𝑟 is called the
neighborhood (nbd) of a point a

𝑧−𝑎 <𝑟
Upper Half plane (y>0) Lower Half Plane (y<0)
Right half plane (𝑥 > 0) Left Half Plane (𝑥 < 0)
Real function:
A real function f defined on a set 𝑺 of real numbers is a rule that assigns to every 𝑥 in 𝑆 a
real number 𝑓(𝑥), which is called the value of 𝑓 at 𝑥.
Now in a complex, 𝑆 is a set of complex numbers and a function 𝑓 defined on a set 𝑆 is a
rule that assigns to every 𝑧 in 𝑆 a complex number 𝑤 , called the value of 𝑓 at 𝑧, such
that
𝒇 𝒛 =𝒘

𝒖 𝒙, 𝒚 + 𝒊𝒗 𝒙, 𝒚 = 𝒇 𝒛 = 𝒇 𝒙 + 𝒊𝒚
Here , the form of 𝑧 and 𝑤 are 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 and 𝑤 = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣.

Example: 𝑤 = 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑧 2 + 3𝑧
Domain: whole complex plane
Range: The set of all values of a function 𝑓.
2.

3.
Limit and continuity
Limit: Let 𝒇(𝒛) be any complex valued function such that
𝒇 𝒛 = 𝒖 + 𝒊𝒗
A function 𝒇(𝒛) is said to have the limit 𝑙 as z approaches a point 𝒛𝟎 , written as

𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇 𝒛 = 𝒍,
𝒛→𝒛𝟎

If 𝒇 is defined in a nbd of 𝒛𝟎 and if the values of 𝒇 are close to 𝒍 for all 𝒛 close to 𝑧0 .

Or
If for every positive real ∈, we can find a positive real 𝜹 such that for all 𝒛 ≠ 𝒛𝟎 in the
disk 𝒛 − 𝒛𝟎 < 𝜹, we have
𝒇 𝒛 − 𝒍 <∈
Example: Find the limit of 𝑓 𝑧 at 𝑧 = 0, where

𝑧
𝑓 𝑧 = .
𝑧
Solution:
𝑧 𝑥 − 𝑖𝑦
lim 𝑓 𝑧 = lim = lim
𝑧→0 𝑧→0 𝑧 (𝑥,𝑦)→(0,0) 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦

1 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ 𝑋 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠
= −1 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ 𝑦 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠
1−𝑚𝑖
1+𝑚𝑖 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥
Hence limit does not exist.

Note: If the limit exists, it should be unique.

Remark: This definition of limit is similar to that in calculus, but there is a big
difference.
In the case of real , 𝑥 can approach 𝑥0 only along the real line but here (complex) 𝑧
may approach 𝑧0 from any direction in the complex plane.

Continuity:
A function 𝑓(𝑧) is said to be continuous at 𝒛 = 𝒛𝟎 , if 𝑓 𝑧0 is defined and

𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇 𝒛 = 𝒇(𝒛𝟎 ) .
𝒛→𝒛𝟎

𝒇(𝒛) is said to be continuous in a domain D if it is continuous at each point in the

domain D.
Differentiability: A complex valued function 𝑓 𝑧 : D → 𝐶 is said to be differentiable at
point 𝑧0 ∈ 𝐷, if

𝑓 𝑧 − 𝑓(𝑧0 ) ′
𝑓 𝑧0 + ℎ − 𝑓(𝑧0 )
lim = 𝑓 𝑧0 = lim , ℎ = 𝑧 − 𝑧0
𝑧→𝑧0 𝑧 − 𝑧0 ℎ→0 ℎ
or
𝑓 𝑧0 + ∆𝑧 − 𝑓(𝑧0 )
𝑓′ 𝑧0 = lim , ∆𝑧 = 𝑧 − 𝑧0
∆𝑧→0 ∆𝑧
Example: The function 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑧 2 is differentiable for all 𝑧0 ∈ 𝐶 and have the derivative
2𝑧0 .
Solution:
𝑓 𝑧0 + ℎ − 𝑓(𝑧0 )
𝑓′ 𝑧0 = lim
ℎ→0 ℎ

𝑧0 + ℎ 2 − 𝑧02
= lim
ℎ→0 ℎ

𝑧0 2 + ℎ2 + 2ℎ𝑧0 − 𝑧02
= lim
ℎ→0 ℎ

ℎ(ℎ + 2𝑧0 )
= lim = 2 𝑧0
ℎ→0 ℎ
Example: Check the differentiability o𝑓 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑧 .
Solution:
′
𝑓 𝑧0 + ℎ − 𝑓(𝑧0 )
𝑓 𝑧0 = lim
ℎ→0 ℎ

𝑧0 + ℎ − 𝑧0
= lim
ℎ→0 ℎ

𝑧0 + ℎ − 𝑧0 ℎ
= lim = lim
ℎ→0 ℎ ℎ→0 ℎ

1 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠

ℎ1 − 𝑖ℎ2 −1 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ 𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠
= lim =
ℎ1 ,ℎ2 →0 ℎ1 + 𝑖ℎ2 1 − 𝑚𝑖
ℎ2 = 𝑚ℎ1
1 + 𝑚𝑖
Since the limit does not exist at any point 𝑧0 ∈ 𝐶, therefore the function 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑧 is not
differentiable at any point.

Theorem: Every differentiable function is continuous.

Proof: Let 𝑓(𝑧) be differentiable at some point 𝑧0 .
Let
𝑓 𝑧 − 𝑓 𝑧0
𝑓 𝑧 − 𝑓 𝑧0 = 𝑧 − 𝑧0
𝑧 − 𝑧0
On taking limits
𝑓 𝑧 − 𝑓 𝑧0
lim 𝑓 𝑧 − 𝑓 𝑧0 = lim 𝑧 − 𝑧0
𝑧→𝑧0 𝑧→𝑧0 𝑧 − 𝑧0

𝑓 𝑧 − 𝑓 𝑧0
= lim lim (𝑧 − 𝑧0 ) = 𝑓 ′ 𝑧0 . 0 = 0
𝑧→𝑧0 𝑧 − 𝑧0 𝑧→𝑧0
 lim 𝑓 𝑧 − 𝑓 𝑧0 =0
𝑧→𝑧0

Or
lim 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑓 𝑧0
𝑧→𝑧0

Hence , 𝑓(𝑧) is continuous at 𝑧 = 𝑧0