Polynomial

In algebra, letters are used to stand for values that can change (variables) or for values that aren't known
(unknowns). A term is a number or letter on its own, or numbers and letters multiplied together, such as -
2, 5b3c , 2b

A combination of constants and variables connected by +, −,×,÷ signs is known as an algebraic expression.
The parts of an algebraic expression separated by + 𝑜𝑟 − signs are called the terms of the expression.

Terms having the same variables are called “like terms”. Only like terms can be added or subtracted. A term is
made up of factors. Term 2xy has three factors 2,x,y; Constant term (say 5) has one factor.

Co-efficient - a numerical or constant quantity placed before and multiplying the variable (e.g. 4 in 4x 2).

Coefficient is of two types. Numbers form Numerical coefficients and symbols/letters literal coefficients.
Example: In 2xy, 2 is the Numerical coefficient while xy, the letter(s), is the Literal Coefficient.

An algebraic expression with finite number of terms in which the variables have only non-negative integral
powers is called a Polynomial. (Exponents cannot be negative or fractions in a polynomial; But there is no
restrictions on the coefficients. Coefficients can be negative and fractions or decimals).
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𝐸𝑥𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑦𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑎𝑙𝑠: 5𝑥 2 − 8𝑥 + 7; 3𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 − 9; 5. 4𝑦 3 + 9𝑦 2 + 𝑧; 2𝑥 3 𝑦 2 + 9𝑥𝑦 2 + 7𝑥𝑦;
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Polynomial with one term Monomial 5b3c , 2b, 2ax/3y , k2 are examples
Polynomial with two terms Binomial m + n , a2 + 2b , 5x3 – 9y2 , -11p – q2 ,b3/2 + c/3 , 5m2n2 + 1/7
Polynomial with three terms Trinomial x + y + z , xy + x + 2y2 , -7m5 + n3 – 3m2n2 , x2/3 + ay – 6bz
Every real number is a constant polynomial. A non-zero constant polynomial has no zero (e.g. 5 = 5𝑥 0 = 5 ×
1 = 5 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑥)

Every real number is a zero of zero polynomial 𝑝(𝑥), 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒 0. (0𝑥 2 − 0𝑥 + 0)whatever
value 𝑥 is given, the polynomial value will be zero.

Degrees of Polynomial (sometimes also called “order” of the polynomial)

The degree of a term is the sum of the exponents of the variables, and thus is a non-negative integer.

The degree of a polynomial is the highest degree of its individual terms with non-zero coefficients.
The leading term is the term with the highest power, and its coefficient is called the leading coefficient.

The Degree for a polynomial with one variable, like x, is the largest exponent (or index) of that variable.
3𝑥 3 + 5𝑥 2 − 9 is a Polynomial of one variable 𝑥 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒 3. 𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑦𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑎𝑙 4𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒 1.
2𝑥 3 𝑦 2 + 9𝑥𝑦 2 + 7𝑥𝑦; Degree of 1st term is 5, 2nd term is 3, and 3rd term is 2. The polynomial has a degree of 5.

 Degree 0 – non-zero constant  Degree 3 – cubic  Degree 6 – sextic (or hexic)

 Degree 1 – linear  Degree 4 – quartic  Degree 7 – septic (or heptic)
 Degree 2 – quadratic  Degree 5 – quintic 
Writing a Polynomial in Standard form means that you write the terms by descending degree.

The value of a polynomial 𝑓(𝑥) at 𝑥 = 𝑎 is obtained by substituting ‘𝑎’ in the place of ‘𝑥’ and denoted by 𝑓(𝑎).

Functional Notation
𝑓(𝑥) means, function of 𝑥; 𝑓(𝑦) means, function of 𝑦; 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) means, function of 𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦;
If a quantity depends on the value of another quantity, the first quantity is said to be a function of the second.
E.g., The distance travelled depends on the time taken, then distance is a function of time.
E.g., If 𝑦 = 3𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 5, the value of 𝑦 varies with the value of 𝑥. So 𝑦 is a function of 𝑥.
Division of Polynomial: If 𝑝(𝑥)𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑔(𝑥) are two polynomials, where 𝑔(𝑥) ≠ 0, then we can find polynomials
𝑞(𝑥)𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑟(𝑥) such that 𝑝(𝑥) = 𝑔(𝑥) × 𝑞(𝑥) + 𝑟(𝑥); 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑟(𝑥) = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑟(𝑥) < 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑔(𝑥).

Factorization is the process of converting an algebraic expression as a product of two or more algebraic
expressions.

Factors and Roots of a Polynomial Equation

A polynomial function of one variable x and degree n is of the form:

f(x) = a0xn + a1xn−1 + a2xn−2 + ... + an, where a0 ≠ 0 and n is a positive integer,
The process of expressing any polynomial as a product of its factors is called factorization.
(a) A polynomial of n-th degree can be factored into n linear factors.
(b) A polynomial equation of degree n has exactly n roots.
(c) If (x−r) is a factor of a polynomial, then x=r is a root of the associated polynomial equation.
Finding the roots of a polynomial means "to find values of x which make the equation 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝟎 true."
Note that root r is also called the “zero” of the function or “zero” of the polynomial

The Factor and Remainder Theorem

Consider f(x) = (x − r)q(x) + R; if x = r, the expression becomes f(r) = (r − r) q(r) + R = R
If a polynomial f(x) is divided by (x − r) and a remainder R is obtained, then f(r) = R. <Remainder Theorem>
If the remainder f(r) = R = 0, then (x − r) is a factor of f(x). < Factor Theorem >
The Factor Theorem is powerful because it can be used to find roots of polynomial equations. Whereas
remainder theorem can only be used to find the remainder.
Descartes’ Factor Theorem:
If p(x) is a polynomial, then p(x) has a zero r precisely when (𝑥 − 𝑟) is a factor of p(x).
Linear Equations

An equation involving one or more variables each with each term having an exponent of 1 is called a linear
equation. E.g., 𝒂𝒙 + 𝒃𝒚 + 𝒄 = 𝟎 where 𝑎 ≠ 0, 𝑎. 𝑏, 𝑐 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑠;

A linear equation with two variables gives a straight line when plotted on a graph. E.g. y = mx + b;
−𝒃
𝒂𝒙 + 𝒃 = 𝟎 is the general form of linear equation in one variable, and has a unique solution. 𝒙 =
𝒂

Pair of linear equations in two variables taken together are called simultaneous linear equations. The solution
of simultaneous linear equations is the ordered pair (x, y) which satisfies both the equations.

𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑏1 𝑦 + 𝑐1 = 0 and 𝑎2 𝑥 + 𝑏2 𝑦 + 𝑐2 = 0
𝑎1 𝑏1 −𝑎
1. Has unique solution (where both lines intersect at one point (x,y)) if ≠ (slopes are different)
𝑎2 𝑏2 𝑏
𝑎1 𝑏1 𝑐1 −𝑎
2. Has NO solution (where both lines are parallel) if
𝑎2
= 𝑏2
≠ 𝑐 (slopes 𝑏 are same)
2
𝑎1 𝑏1 𝑐
3. Infinitely many solutions (where both represent the same line) if = = 1 (slopes −𝑎 are same)
𝑎2 𝑏2 𝑐2 𝑏

Simultaneous linear equations can be solved by plotting a graph (or) substitution (or) elimination.

Quadratic Equations
The equation of the form 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0 where 𝑎 ≠ 0, 𝑎. 𝑏, 𝑐 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑠 is called a quadratic equation.

Two ways of finding the roots of a quadratic equation: 1) Factorization Method 2)Application of Formula

Example of factorization method:

𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 6 = 0; 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 3𝑥 + 6 = 𝑥(𝑥 − 2) − 3(𝑥 − 2) = (𝑥 − 3)(𝑥 − 2) = 0; 𝑆𝑜 𝑥 = 3 (𝑜𝑟) 𝑥 = 2
−8
3𝑥 2 + 11𝑥 + 8 = 0; 3𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 8𝑥 + 8 = 3𝑥(𝑥 + 1) + 8(𝑥 + 1) = (3𝑥 + 8)(𝑥 + 1) = 0; 𝑥 = (𝑜𝑟) 𝑥 = −1
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Tip: Find two numbers such that their product = ac and sum=b; If ac is positive, both numbers are of same sign;

Factorization may not always be possible and so formula can be used to find the roots;

−𝒃 ± √𝒃𝟐 − 𝟒𝒂𝒄
𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑥2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0 are
𝟐𝒂
𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑛𝑡; If 𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐 = 0, then roots are real and equal
If 𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐 > 0 (𝑖𝑒. , +𝑣𝑒), then roots are real and unequal (equation has two distinct roots)
If 𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐 < 0 (𝑖𝑒. , −𝑣𝑒), then roots are imaginary (as it involves √−𝑣𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟)
𝒃 𝒃𝟐
By completing the square method 𝒂𝒙𝟐 + 𝒃𝒙 + 𝒄 can be turned into 𝒂(𝒙 + 𝒅)𝟐 + 𝒆 where 𝒅 = ,𝒆 = 𝒄−
𝟐𝒂 𝟒𝒂

𝒃 𝒃𝟐
By completing the square method 𝒙𝟐 + 𝒃𝒙 + 𝒄 can be turned into (𝒙 + 𝒎)𝟐 = 𝒏 where 𝒎 = , 𝒏 = −𝒄
𝟐 𝟒

−𝑏 −(𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑥) 𝑐 (𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚)

If 𝛼 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛽 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑤𝑜 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑠, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝛼 + 𝛽 = = (𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑥 2 )
𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛼𝛽 = = (𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑎 𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑥 2 )

Cubic Polynomial
If 𝛼, 𝛽, 𝛾 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑐𝑢𝑏𝑖𝑐 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑦𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑥 3 + 𝑏𝑥 2 + 𝑐𝑥 + 𝑑 = 0, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛
−𝑏 −(𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑥 2 ) 𝑐 −𝑑 (𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚)
𝛼+𝛽+𝛾 = = (𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑥 3 )
and 𝛼𝛽 + 𝛽𝛾 + 𝛾𝛼 = and 𝛼𝛽𝛾 = = (𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑎 𝑎 𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑥 3 )

If 𝛼, 𝛽, 𝛾 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑐𝑢𝑏𝑖𝑐 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑦𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑎𝑙 , 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝒌[𝒙𝟑 − (𝜶 + 𝜷 + 𝜸)𝒙𝟐 + (𝜶𝜷 + 𝜷𝜸 + 𝜸𝜶)𝒙 − 𝜶𝜷𝜸] = 𝟎

In General for any polynomial:

1. Adding the roots gives −b/a
2. Multiplying the roots gives (where "z" is the constant at the end):
z/a (for even degree polynomials like quadratics)
−z/a (for odd degree polynomials like cubics)

Factorizing a Cubic Polynomial

To factor a cubic polynomial (which has three roots), we can try to find at least one factor using Factor
Theorem and then by long division.

𝑝(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 − 70; Look for zeroes, which are factors of 70 (𝛼𝛽𝛾 𝑖𝑠 70; 𝑠𝑜 𝑎 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑑 𝑏𝑒 2,5,7);
Using trial and error method, you can find that 𝑝(5) = 0; By Factor theorem we know that (𝑥 − 5) is a factor;
Divide 𝑝(𝑥) 𝑏𝑦 (𝑥 − 5) using long division and get the other factor (𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 14). You can try to factorize the
quadratic equation further if possible

For example 𝑘(𝑥) = 2𝑥 3 − 7𝑥 2 − 14𝑥 − 5 = (𝑥 − 5)(𝑥 + 1)(2𝑥 + 1)

Cubic polynomial can also be factorized, if possible, by applying the splitting method
𝑝(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 − 23𝑥 2 + 142𝑥 − 120
= 𝑥 3 − 1𝑥 2 − 22𝑥 2 + 22𝑥 + 120𝑥 − 120
= 𝑥 2 (𝑥 − 1) − 22𝑥(𝑥 − 1) + 120(𝑥 − 1) = (𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 2 − 22𝑥 + 120)
= (𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 2 − 12𝑥 − 10𝑥 + 120) = (𝑥 − 1)[𝑥(𝑥 − 12) − 10(𝑥 − 12]
= (𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 − 12)(𝑥 − 10)

Homogenous, Symmetric and Cyclic Expressions

An algebraic expression in which the degree of all the terms is equal is a homogenous expression. A
homogenous expression is complete if it contains all the possible terms in it. The product of two or more
homogenous expression is a homogenous expression whose degree is the sum of the degrees of all
expressions. Example: (𝑥 + 𝑦)(2𝑥 2 + 𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 2 ) = 2𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2 𝑦 + 2𝑥𝑦 2 + 𝑦 3

If an expression remains the same after interchanging the variables 𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦, it is a symmetric expression.
𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑓(𝑦, 𝑥); Examples: 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑎𝑦 + 𝑏; 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥𝑦 + 𝑎𝑦 2 ; The sum, difference, product and quotient of two
symmetric expressions is always symmetric.

If 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 𝑓(𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑧, 𝑥, 𝑦) then it is called Cyclic Expression.

Example: 𝑎2 (𝑎 − 𝑏) + 𝑏 2 (𝑏 − 𝑐) + 𝑐 2 (𝑐 − 𝑎) which can be represented as ∑𝑎,𝑏,𝑐 𝑎2 (𝑎 − 𝑏)
𝑥 2 (𝑦 2 − 𝑧 2 ) + 𝑦 2 (𝑧 2 − 𝑥 2 ) + 𝑧 2 (𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 ) can be represented as ∑𝑥,𝑦,𝑧 𝑥 2 (𝑦 2 − 𝑧 2 )

Odd and Even Functions (symmetric functions) - Note that most functions are neither odd nor even.
𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑓(−𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑥; (𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑝ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑓 𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑦𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑤. 𝑟. 𝑡 𝑦 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠)
𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑑𝑑 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑓(−𝑥) = −𝑓(𝑥) 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑥; (𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑝ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑓 𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑦𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑤. 𝑟. 𝑡 𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛1)

1
Origin (or point symmetry) is when all points have a matching point at the same distance from origin but in opposite direction